Jnanpith, the country’s highest literary award was instituted in 1965. Karnataka has won the maximum number of awards till to date, With 36 years of history of this award Kannada bagged seven of them with an average of one in 5 years. Even after present rule, if a language gets the award it is not eligible to get next three years. Kannada literature, which one of the oldest, Indian languages is very much enriched by these icons, whose writings over a range of genres translated into several Indian languages and foreign languages, provide the Kannada world with their fabulous feast of writings.
Kuvempu
Kuppalli Venkatappa Puttappa
Dattatreya Ramachandra Bendre 
Shivaram Karanth
Masti Venkatesha Iyengar
Vinayaka Krishna Gokak
U.R. Anantha Murthy
Girish Karnad Having been ruled by Nandas, Mauryas , Satavahana, Chutus, Kadambas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Seunas, Vijayanagar rulers, the Bahmanis, the Adil Shahis and the Marathas, you will find ample reminders of the history gone by. Famous among the luminaries who left indelible mark here, are the kittur Rani Channamma, Sangoli Rayanna etc. Belgaum is not a stranger to history, but this site Navilthirtha is one of the earliest and most important discovery. This site Megalithic links karnata to Indus valley literally. Karnataka is not a stranger to Megalithic sites. So many Megalithic sites have been found, in fact the largest number of megalithic sites in India are found in Karnataka. 
Navilthirtha site
Navilthirtha (peacock gorge) is a deep gorge cut by the Malaprabha river in a roughly east-west oriented hill range of sedimentary rocks. It is located about 6km northwest of saundatti in Belgaum district. In 1950, while exploring for stone Age sites in the valley, R.V. Joshi(sankalia, Subbarao and Joshi 1951:82) discovered a megalithic site on the northern site of the gorge, stated to be in manoli, but within the revenue limits of sindhogi, The monuments were discovered were called as Dolmenoid cists. Mr. Joshi also discovered five early palaeolithic sites located north and south of the gorge at Katral, Hadagali, Manoli, Teggihal and Hirur.
In the 1965-68 explorations of this area Sundara. A discovered two more sites, one at Tallur(about 15km northwest of Sindhogi), and the other about 10km south of Sindhogi at Saundatti (Sundara 1975:24-25). At Tallur a habitattion site was found near a megalithic burial site, with black and red, bright read and dull red pottery of types associated with megalithic structures. Russet coated, white painted pottery of the early historic period was also found. From a distributed round barrow nearby were recovered 21 conch shells, each with a pierced hole indicating that they were worn strung together, plus pottery, pieces of iron and human skeletal remains.
The Megalithic monuments in these sites are of three types: passage chambers of konnur tyupe, passage chambers of kaladgi type and round barrows.
Geometric Design
In 1974 , when the construction of the dam across the Navilthirtha gorge was in the early stages. A. Sundara picked up a small polished Neolithic Axe nearby, Earlier he had discovered additional Neolithic sites further down the Malaprabha valley.
When Mr. Sundara with his students visited again the completed Dam and attached picnic garden in 1978 on the Slope of the Hill where the garden is located shreds of black and red ware and red ware of types with megalithic associations were noticed. One third of a kilometer east of the site, immediately to the right of the road to the Dam, stands an undressed thick stone upright, on meter high, with natural semi- circular top. On one of the flat surfaces of this stone there is deeply engraved Geometric Design
The Engraving comprises two similar convolutions which have been interfaced together. Each Comprises a single line of engraving, with two peripheral loops and one inner one. The resulting symmetrical pattern thus comprises two rows each of three loops within the outer curved borders, and this gives the illusion that only one line has been engraved. The pattern has clearly been carefully conceived.
Ancient Anatolia (Turkey) and karnata has Healthy exchange of Ideas and commerce. Both being at the cross roads of Human Immigration, Commerce and Exchanges in their respective regions. Let us see some of the known exchanges.
Language Exchanges
Modern Kannada Shows striking similarities to Modern Turkish (Altaic Languages). Many words are common to the two languages. Another Common feature is Agglutination with several suffixes common. 
Turkish word | Nearest Kannada equivalent |
| 1) Agla- (Cry) | Alu (Weep, Cry) |
| 2) Agri (Pain) | Uri (Burning sensation) |
| 3) Al- (Take) | Arisu (Pick, Gather) |
| 4) Alçalt- (Reduce) | Allisu (Erase, wipe off) |
| 5) AltÛ (SÛx) | Aaru (Six) |
| 6) (Arka)das (Friend) | Dasa (Follower) |
| 7) AsÛr (Excessive) | Aatra (Hurry, haste) |
| 8) BagÛr- (Shout) | Bayyi (Scold) |
| 9) Bagla- (Tie, bind) | Bagi, bigi (Fasten, tie tightly) |
| 10) Baskan (Chief) | Bhaskar (Popular name ) |
| 11) Basar (Success) | Basari (Pregnancy) |
| 12) Ben (I) | Yen (I, old Kannada) |
| 13) Bere (Bruise) | Bare (Burn, bruise) |
| 14) Bir (One) | Bari (Only) |
| 15) Bosal- (Drain) | Bacchalu (Drain) |
| 16) Bögur- (Bello w) | Bogalu (Bar k, bellow) |
| 17) Bölün- (Be divided) | Bolusu (Shave, cut) |
| 18) ÇalÛs (Work) | Kelasa (Work) |
| 19) Dal (Branch) | Dal (Branch) |
| 20) Dillim (Slice) | Thilli (Dilute); Thelu (Thin) |
| 21) Durak (Stop) | Dorku (Last long, ”halt‘ long?) |
| 22) Eki (Sown) | Agi (Dig, an agricultur al operatio n) |
| 23) Genis (Wide) | Genu (Width) |
| 24) GÛda (Food) | Gadad (Heavy meal) |
| 25) GÛrtlak (Throat) | Gilla (Lower chin) |
| 26) Göl (Lake) | Kola (Pond) |
| 27) Gör- (See) | Gur (Stare, ”Guri‘: Aim) |
| 28) Görev (Duty) | Gaurava (Honour) |
| 29) Gübre (Manure) | Gobra (Manure) |
| 30) Gürü ltü (Lo ud no ise) | Guru lu (Rumble) |
| 31) HalÛ (Carpet) | Haasu (Spread on the floor) |
| 32) Hangi (Which) | Henge (How:Interrogative) |
| 33) Hareket (Gesture) | Harke (Vow, religious gesture) |
| 34) Hela (Toilet) | Helu (Excrement) |
| 35) Iç (Inside) | Iche (Outside, this side) |
| 36) Isyan (Revolt) | Asainya (Repellant) |
| 37) Iste (Like) | Ishta (Like, Love) |
| 38) It- (Push) | Idu (Put, Push) |
| 39) Iyi (Good, well) | Haayi (Soothing) |
| 40) Kabuk (Rind, Shell) | Kabbu (Sugar cane) |
| 41) Kalk- (Depart) | Kalach- (Detach, Fall off) |
| 42) Kara (Black) | Kari (Black) |
| 43) Karga (Crow) | Kaage ( Crow) |
| 44) KatÛ (Hard) | Gatti (Hard) |
| 45) Katlan- (Suffer) | Kashta (Difficulty, suffering) |
| 46) Kol (Arm) | Kol (Stick), Tolu (Arm) |
| 47) Kopar- (Break off) | Kopa (anger) |
| 48) Korku (Fea r ) | Korgu (Worry) |
| 49) Kötü (Bad) | Kett u (Bad, Evil) |
| 50) Kurul- (Be established) | Kuru su (Set/sit down) |
| 51) Kutu (Box) | Kattu (Build, Tie, Package) |
| 52) Kuzu (Young of lamb) | Koosu (Kid, babe) |
| 53) Küçük (Small) | Chikk(a) (Small, Tiny) |
| 54) Narin (Slender) | Naaru (Long and slender fibre) |
| 55) Oku- (Read) | Odu (Read) |
| 56) Orta (Middle) | Ardha (Half) |
| 57) Ögle (Noon) | Hagalu (Day) |
| 58) Ölçu (Measure) | Alte (Measure) |
| 59) Önce (In front) | Munje (Before) |
| 60) Önde (In front) | Munde (In front) |
| 61) Örtü (Cover) | Ho ddu- ( Cover with blanket) |
| 62) Öte (Yonder) | Atta (That side) |
| 63) Payla- (Scold) | Bayyi (Scold) |
| 64) Pibek (Cat, old Altaic) | Bekku (Cat) |
| 65) Salla (Shake) | Alla- (Shake) |
| 66) Satis (Sale) | Setty (Dominant merchant caste) |
| 67) SayrÛ (Ill, Sick) | Saayi (Die) |
| 68) Seda (Sound) | Shabda (Noise) |
| 69) Sevgili ( Darling) | Cheluvi ( Girl) |
| 70) SÛcak (Hot) | Shakha (Warmth) |
| 71) SÛra (Chain) | Sara (Chain, necklace) |
| 72) Tarak (Rake) | Yerka (Harrow) |
| 73) Tepe (Hill) | Tippe (Rubbish heap) |
| 74) TÛrmanmak (Climb) | Tirmana (Conclude, final ruling) |
| 75) Tunç (Bronze) | Kunch (Brass, bronze) |
| 76) Tüm (Whole) | Thumba (Full) |
| 77) Ucuz (Cheap) | Uchita (Free) |
| 78) Uyu- (Sleep) | Uyyale (Swing, Cradle) |
| 79) Uza- (Lengthen) | Udda (Length/long) |
| 80) Ütü (Press) | Ottu (Press) |
| 81) Var- (Arrive) | Bar- (Come, arrive) |
| 82) Vardiya (Shift period) | Vare (Shift, move) |
| 83) Ver- (Give) | Biru (Offer) |
| 84) VÛrÛldan- (Talk incessantly) | Varalu (Grindstone) |
| 85) Vurgu (Stress) | Ooru (Press heavily) |
| 86) Yat- (Lie down) | Yatne (Suffering) |
| 87) Yedi (Seven) | Yelu (Seven) |
| 88) Yemek (Food) | Melk (Chew, cud) |
| 89) Yetki (Capacity) | Yetku (Reach up, also a measure of ability) |
| 90) Yirmi (Twenty) | Ippattu (Twenty) |
| 91) Yudu m (Gu lp) | Gudu m (Gu lp) |
| 92) Yün (Wool) | Unne (Wool) |
| 93) Yüz- (Swim) | Iju (Swim) |
Suffixes
Turkish Kannada
(n)in genitive (ina)in genitive identical meaning
li(with) (li)within
ki(off, in) ki(for)
di ,da(locative) da(of)
Typical examples: Istanbulun (Istanbul‘s), Bangalorina (Bangalore‘s); Ankara‘da (in Ankar a), Kalkattada (of Calcutta); the accusative and dative suffixes are also similar and involve vo wel ending s, but with an intervening ”k‘ or ”g‘ in the Kannada case.
They were the first to use Iron in West Asia and Europe and they have superior Iron armour and weapons. They ruled from 1900 – 1000BC. Their Country is called Land of Hatti. Their capital is Hatti or Hattusa and they called themselves Nesite (Kanesili) meaning they are from Nesa (Kanesh city). Their First king was and then Pithana from kussara. His son were Piyusti, Anitta , was the first give compose text. The Other famous kings include Hattusili. Hittites regained their power after a lull with kings like Tudhaliya ,Suppiluliuma , mursili , Arnuwanda, Telepinu, Tahurwaili, Hantili, Zidanta,Ammuna, Huzziya etc.
Roman Karnata links
Before first Century AD Monsoon winds used by handful of Indian and Arabs sailors and their use was unknown to the European (Roman and Greek) and Egyptian traders. But when the Romans became aware of the Monsoon winds and opening of Red sea led to huge trade with Romans , many of the southern ports came to be established and sea trade for sometime replaced land trade routes like silk road.
Direct Trade with Karnata during Byzantine time is very less. Most of the trade took place through Arabs by sea route and persians by land routeTipu Ottoman links
Tippu sultan of Mysore who was stopping the British advances in India assessed trade and technology as the means to take on British. He resumed direct trade links with Ottaman empire. Tipu was unhappy with the French support he had received. He then sent a delegation to Versailles as well to the Ottoman sultan in Constantinople. The delegation received a warm welcome in France but little military help. Tipu’s territories had included the Malabar Coast from where he was able to launch successful trade with Arabia and his kingdom became prosperous. He was also interested in agriculture and sought experimental seeds and new crops from all over Asia and France. Srirangapatnam was a converted to an admirable botanical garden and he introduced silkworm cultivation to Mysore (for which the region is well known even today). Tipu’s rule became the envy of the neighboring states and this did not bode well for him in the long run. Educated, possessed with a curious mind and with the ability to rule his subjects well he gained the nickname ‘Tiger of Mysore’.
Religious chuvanist
His eagarness to establish links with ottoman empire lead to serious consequences in mysore. In order to Impress Ottoman emperor Tippu approached then Mughal king to secure recommendation. And Mughal king took his pound of Flesh. He asked Tippu to declare persian as the State Language and Islam as State Religion . This led to lot of oposition and agitation and Tippu lost much of popularity by imposing a foreign religion and Language. Further the Mighty Mysore Army was diluted with introduction of rogue muslim mercenaries as commanders whose only aim to plunder people wealth and their conquest consists of destroying temples and converting people enmass to islam by threat and whatever means. The mercenary commanders have their own agenda and cared nothing about welfare of people. Even the Sringeri mutt was not spared.
Eventhough Tippu said to have sent a apology letter to mutt, the popularity of Tippu was fast declining. When Tippu sought a platoon from Turkey , it showed the extend of his local popularity decline in Mysore. The once Mighty mysore army has become such a sorry state of affairs that in the end could not even defend the most secure Fort, Srirangapatna. Many local felt that British rule will be less tyranical to Tippu rule.
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Gadegalu are the sayings about life and people. There are hundreds of gadegalu in Kannada and its origins are probably as old as the language itself. Below are some of tbe proverbs in Kannada-
Ramayana and Mahabharata are the Most popular epics in India. But there are numerous Epics in India ,Especially in Oral Tradition. Karnataka being the Spiritual centre of India for Ages is home to many. Let us see some of them.
Manteswamy Kavya
‘Manteswamy Kavya’ is one of the most important oral epics of Karnataka. Neelgaras, the professional singers of South Karnataka have kept the epic alive by centuries of performances in the districts of Mandya, Mysore, Ramanagara, Chamarajanagara and Bangalore.(Rural)
Manteswamy was a folk hero who lived during the fifteenth century.(approximately) Legends are built around his life and the shrines at Chikkelluru, Boppagoudanapura and Kappadi are related to personalities depicted in the epic. Manteswamy is a living tradition in and around these regions. ‘Manteswamy Kavya’ treats him on par with Allamaprabhu the Veerashiava saint of the twelfth century and does not distinguish between them. However this contention does not find many takers.
The epic begins with the arrival of Manteswamy in Kalyana, who makes a dramatic appearance on a dung heap at the entrance of the city, with the dead body of a calf and a gourd full of ‘kaLLu’. Basavanna’s wife arrives there and takes him to the palace and a confrontation between the sharanas and Manteswamy takes place. His greatness is proved equivocally and that heralds the victory of the lowly over insincere devotees.
After that, Manteswamy embarks upon a journey towards South Karnataka till he finds his permanent abode in Boppagoudanapura. This journey is punctuated by his efforts to acquire disciples. “Throughout the saga of Manteswamy, he picks up infants for his cause. This is symbolic. Each child represents a community that comes into the Manteswamy fold. Rachappaji, Doddamma of the Grove, Channajamma, Madivala Machayya, Phalaradayya and Siddappaji are his chief followers. How he brought them into his fold, through ritual, craft and magic, makes up the saga.”(S.R.ramakrishna) Baachi Basavayya who wants to become his disciple is reborn as 
Baala Kempanna and later acquires the name Sidapaaji.
The confrontation of Siddappaaji with the Panchalas (Blacksmiths) of Halaguuru is fraught with symbolic qualities. This represents a stage in civilization when technology had to be liberated from its hereditary practitioners. This incident is narrated very dramatically.
Finally Manteswamy acquires many followers in a number of communities and settles down at Boppagoudanapura. His ‘samaadhi’ is found in this place. Two of his important disciples have their shrines at Chikkelluuru and KappaDi.
‘Manteswamy Kavya’ and its cognate epics have many distinctive features. They have selected a language which is a dialect, both geographically and socially. This choice is remarkable in the context of literary texts. Secondly, the narrative style is a combination of the poetic, the dramatic and a simple narration in prose. This adds to the impact of the epic. Thirdly, it is episodic and each episode may be recited independent of its broader context. This work delineates the life of unlettered communities. Most of these epics have a theory regarding the origin of the universe and their community is usually found in the nucleus of the story. This gives a sense of identity and pride to these communities. Actually they depict different stages in the history of civilization.
Male Madeshvara
‘Male Madeshvara’ and ‘Manteswamy Kavya’ are the most renowned Oral Epics of Kannada. These epics have flourished for centuries even though they were marginalized by the main strea
m literature. ‘Male Madeshvara’ is a mythological-historical account of Madeshvara a tribal hero who is worshipped even to this day. His temple is situated in the Male Madeshvara Hills in Chamarajanagara district. The epic is an episodic cycle consisting of seven episodes usually referred to as ‘sAlu’ or ‘kavalu’. “The Madeswara epic consists of seven cycles, or episodes, depicting the life of a religious saint, or hero, called Madeswara. Each episode centers on one or more miracles performed by Madeswara. In each case, the miracle serves to demonstrate Madeswara’s religious power in the face of those who challenge or doubt it. As such, the Madeswara epic bears many resemblances to both oral tradition and literary puranic accounts of the exploits of deities. Indeed, Madeswara is regarded by his followers as an incarnation, or amsha, of Shiva.”(PeterJ..Clauss). The episodes are ‘tALugate’, ‘ShravanakumAra, ‘JunjEgouDa’, ‘sankamma’, ‘bEvina kALi’, ‘dEvamma’ and ‘saragUru mAdappa’. ‘tAlugathe’ narrates the dramatic appearance of Madeshvara as a Jangama and his confrontation with the seers of Suttur. He is asked to accomplish certain tasks to establish his powers and he proceeds to achieve them by his miraculous abilities. Seen from a historical point of view these episodes document the confrontations of the protagonist with established castes and communities. It is a 
process of acquiring domination and control. Madeshvara wins over his adversaries with his divine powers. They belong to Jainism, Kuruba community and those who are loyal to Biligiri Ranga. This hints at a process of expansion of a cult. ‘sankammana sAlu’ is particularly impressive because of the sufferings and perseverance of the female protagonist Sankamma. ‘Male Madeshvara Kavya’ is undoubtedly a literary work of art and it will survive even when divested from its religious associations. The description of nature as well human nature, creation of situations with dramatic power and a competent use of rural dialect to great effect are the strong points of this epic. It documents the plights and protests of the under privileged communities in their own language. The singers are familiar with the general outlines of the story and they have a number of formulaic patterns at their command. They are capable of creating the text that suits the context. Consequently each performance becomes a new creation. The listeners too are familiar with the general out line and they are emotionally connected to the performance. The epic acquires a different status when committed to writing even though some unique features are lost. A systematic study of this epic has begun recently.
Junjappa Kavya
Junjappa ( is a glorified cow- herd, and is taken to be a later incarnation of Sri Krishna. Just like the hero of Bhagavata, he had also to tight against the jealousy and the wicked machinations of his maternal uncles. He is said to have been born by breaking through the back of his mother, a method which is popularly believed to be still seen in scorpions.One his uncles planned to infect his cattle by burying a live bull calf infeotel with rinderpest in a tank to which Junjappa's cattle were going to drink. The cattle appro- ached the tank sniffing the air and would not drink. He suspected some foul play and calling out his favourite bright eyed cow which answered to the name of Uhikka- Rambha, directed her to find out what the matter was with the water. She dived under the water and succeeded in lifting on its horns the calf still alive from the mire. It was tended with care and cured of its disease, and it repaid its new benefactor with docile submission and unswerving faithfulness. It was named IJettanna, became strong and spirited when it grew up. It once killed seven bulls out of a herd owned by the uncles, and came back with seven of the best cows. When in revenge they harried the flocks of Junjappi's brothers and carried away this Bettanna and bound it with chains, to a boulder, he had only to mount to a hill top and call his favourite by name, when with a shake of his body he snapped the chains
as if they were mnde of straw and ran to his side.... so goes the Narrative
Kumararamana Kavya
The Epic of about 7000 lines is about a prince of same name, who falls victim to the passions of his young step mother, who being in love with the son is tricked to marry his father. This incest theme is similar to Hyppolytus story of Greek myths and the famous play phaedra of Racine.
Krishnagollara Kavya
The Epic running 14000 lines is about Nomadic tribe called Kishna Gollaru. The Praotagonist of the narrative is a prince called sarabandha, who undertakes a long and perilous journey to get special medicine to cure his father.
Malingarayana Kavya
This epic is about 5500 lines , the story is about exploits of Malingaraya (or Malappa).
Siri Paddana
This Siri cult epic in Tulu running to more than 16000 lines said to be the forerunner to the Pattani cult practised in Srilanka and India also core to the Silapathikaram. Analogy between the Siri paDdana and the story of Kanaki in Silapathikaram suggests that both epics were two different regional versions been built on
the same story element. As noted by Peter Claus “there are some tantalizing similarities between the Siri cult and that of Pattini, and also between the Siri legend and that of Kanagi (Pattini)”.The similarity of story element in the Sangham Kanaki and Tulu Siri, leads us to conclude that the composition of Silapathikaram was based on the cult of Siri Paddana. The Silapathikaram acknowledges Folk artists from Karnataka performing.
Halumatada Mahakavya
This epic belongs to Kuruba or Haalumathas.
Mailaralingana Kavya
The Cult epic runs to 10,000 lines. The epic narrates exploits of cult hero , Mailaralinga, who is said to be the divine incarnation of Shiva . Most of the narratives is concerned with Mailaralinga wooing and finally winning over a kuruba girl called Komale.
Janapada Mahabharata
Myasabedara Kathanagalu
Gonda Ramayana
Yellammana Kathana Kavya
Arjuna Jogi Kavya
Soligaru Hadida Biligirirangana Kavya
Periyapattanada Kalaga
Gunasagari
Jagamohini
Ellamma
Kordabbu (Tulu)
Teyyam
Oggu Kathas
and many more. More will be added as I find more , you can suggest more by comments.
Karnata rulers are known for building large number of temples. Right from Cave temples to temples built by Naiks. Karnataka is known for temple architecture. The unique thing about Karnata temple design and building is that it incorporates various styles of temple building existing across the country right from north to south, east to west. Some of the forms can b
e found only in the place of origin and Karnataka. Let us study the styles used in Karnataka temples after 10th century AD as more information available to distinguish the different styles available from this period.
Awareness of Various forms.
The Karnataka Artisans were familiar with the Temple architecture of different forms can be found from the inscriptions. The Inscription in Amritesvara temple in Holal says
Svasti Samsasta sivapada-Sekhara
Kaliyuga – Visvakarmma causasthi – Kala
-Vidde(dye) -pravina causasthi -Prasada
visarda Nagara – Kalinga – Dravila – Vesara-
caturjjati – prasada -vinirmmita -sutradhari
sogeya padojara chatra Bammojanu
Bokojana puranu srikara – nama
Kambhamgala madidan -omd
omdakkeya alam hara sahita ….
The Inscription in Hale Kannada means that one sutradhari (architect) by name bammoja pupil of padoja who was verily a visvakarma of the prevailing kali yuga a master of sixty four arts , an expert on building sixtyfour varieties of prasadas (sacred building) and the one who (had built ,could built) the caturjati that four classes of temples Nagara, Kalinga, dravila , vesera – carved four srikara types of pillars............
Which shows that not only that architects of Karnataka not only built temple, they knew styles built in other parts of the country and experts in them as well.
The Kupputur inscription of Kottisvara temple says.
(Kailasa)driya visvakarmane bhavang end-oldu
sad -Bhaktiyol bhadradim kandarisittan- embineg-
aneka dravidam, bhumijam piridum nagaram -emba
bahuvidhada bhadropetadim kange varadire
kottisa -Bhavalyam su-lalitam saumayam
Karam susthavam.
(within this village kuppatur) was built , as if by visvakarma himself , out of sublime devotion for the lord of the Kailasa mountain, the elegant equipoised and shapely temple of Kottisa -Bhava , freely ornamented with Dravida , Bhumija and nagara and with Bhadra offsets manipulated in many ways.
The above inscription shows that architects not only used the various styles , but also mixed them to get a style of their own.
The above temples are not the only temples for using various styles,. The Karnata architects use their knowledge freely the temples and we have many Gems. Let us see some of the styles and incorporating temples
Nagara Style
The Typical North Indian Temple with Curvilinear sikhara spire topped by amalasaraka (Myrobalan) . Nagara style begins with Kushans and started peaking with Guptas until Muslim invasion in 10th century AD. The Nagara form is defined in Aparajitaprccha (Western Indian Maru – Gurjara Manual) and Kamikgama (south indian Saivait work). The the Later Kamikagama definition of Nagara styles is not accurate ,
it seems to mistake Kalinga type for Nagara Style. The Karnata architects seems to stick to the authentic Nagara styles. We have to note that Southern counterparts of Karnataka architects calls karnataka styles as Nagara style(Except Kamikagama). The Example incorporating this style of architecture is Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi and a shrine contemporary with it in Gadag, the surya temple in Trikutesvara Group.
Dravida Style
The Dravida style is the style employed in south India. The Samaranganasutradhara and Aparajitaprccha deal with Dravidan style. Again kamikagama view of Dravida style is different from other southern works. The Dravida style consist of octagonal from the base to the final or atleast for its superstructural components. 
The Karnata temples dont seem to follow this defintion strictly and they seem to have seprate style of their own. One example of Dravida style is Chenna kesava temple Marle.
Bhumija Style
Bhumija style is from malava Country. This style was brought to karnataka by Seunas . This style is unknown in other parts of South. The Aparajitaprccha and samaranganasutradhara defines this style. The Shikaras consist of Storied arrangement of Kutas or srngas placed over miniature stambas, arranged in rows creating a
illusion of vertically thrown necklaces of gigantic beads. The Siddeshvara temple of Haveri and saraswati temple of Gadag are good examples of this style influence.
Vesera Style
Vesera style finds no mention in Northern texts.Kamikagama mentions this style as hybrid between Nagara and Dravida. But the jury is not out yet, There is a lot of discussion about what is vesera style and when it started. The style has round eliptical buildings or starting with square and ending with neck. This style is used by Chalukya
s and Hoysalas. The Vesera style exist everywhere in Karnataka. The vesera style is also known as chalukyan - Hoysala style and also Karnataka style. The sadashiva temple Nugihalli is a good example.
Varata Style.
The style is been defined as storied pyramidal buildings surmounted by high temple with walls, cupola and finial. This is from Berar which forms the junction of Seunadesa ( Bhumija Style), Karnata( vesera Style) and Tilangadesa (Kalinga Style). The Style is a combination of vesera with Bhumija and Kalinga overtones. Miniature shrine in chenna Kesava temple at Belur is good example of Vrata influence.
Kalinga Style.
Kalinga style is defined by Laksanasamuccaya and Aparajitaprccha. The Kamikagama defines Kalinga style ,but temples in Kalinga does not see
ms to follow the parameters. The main style of kalinga is nagara ,but with tiered pyramidal roof. Sri Lakshmi Narayana temple of Hosaholalu is a example of Kalinga influence.
So the Styles employed by Karnatka architects in the temple need an extensive study and especially the Vesera and dravidian style. The Karnataka style which started as dravidian style has grown into style of its own.
Source
The Indian Temple Forms In Karnata Inscriptions & Architecture
By M. S. Dhaky, M.A. Dhaky
The Mookambika shrine at Kollur is one of the most revered pilgrimage centers in Karnataka 
(and in Kerala). It is located at a distance of 147 km from Mangalore. The nearest railhead is Udupi, and it is well connected with tourist centers such as Mangalore and Shimoga in Karnataka and Kannanur in Kerala. Located in very picturesque surroundings, Kollur is on the banks of the river Sauparnika (said to possess medicinal properties) at the foot of the hill Kudashadri. The temple is located in a spacious courtyard, and is entered through the eastern gopuradwara. The western entrance, is opened only on special occasions. It is believed that Aadi Sankara entered the temple through the western entrance.
Kollur is regarded as one of the Seven Muktistala pilgrimage sites in Karnataka which are (Kollur), Udupi, Subrahmanya, Kumbasi, Kodeshwara, Sankaranarayana and Gokarna. While the other pilgrimages created by Parashurama are devoted to Lord Shiva, Lord Subramanya and Lord Ganesha, this is the only one devoted to goddess Parvathi.
Adishankara
Kollur i
s known for its association with Aadi Shankara. Mookambika is said to have appeared before Aadi Sankara here, and he is said to have installed her image at this shrine. There is a room near the sanctum - enshrining the Sankara Simhasanam which is regarded as the very spot where he meditated and had a vision of Mookambika. Mookambika is regarded as a manifestation of Shakti, Saraswathi and Mahalakshmi. The Kudashadri hill houses sites such as Ambavanam and Chitramoolam where Adi Sankara is believed to have meditated.
Deities
The image of Mookambika is in a seated posture, bearing the conch and the discus. Also enshrined near this image are those of Mahakali and Saraswathi. The main statue in the temple is the Shiva linga called the Jyothirlingam. This Jyotirlingam in front of the image of the Goddess Mookambika is of great antiquity was installed by Shankara. A golden line divides this lingam into two unequal parts and is visible only in the light of reflected sunlight pointed at the lingam. The right portion of this lingam is said to represent Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - as the conscious static principles and the larger left part Lakshmi, Saraswathi and Parvathi - the creative energy principles. It is a belief that the three goddess Lakshmi, Saraswathi, Parvathi and the three lords Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara emerged out of it. There are also shrines to Veerabhadra, Subramanya, Naga, Vinayaka and Anjaneya. Veerabhadra is worshipped first by devotees before entering the shrine to Mookambika.
Sanctum of Shri Mookambika
Rani Chennamma, the feudal lord by name Halugallu Veera Sangayya has covered the inside of the temple with stone. When we look at the temple structure, we find the sanctorum, then entrance hall and then the Lakshmi Mantapa. There are four pillars at Lakshmi Mantapa and on upper portion of each of these pillars, we find beautifully carved images of various gods. Prominently, they have sculpted the images of Ganesha, Subrahmanya, Naga, Mahishasura Mardini and the goddess in different postures as delineated in Devi Mahatma. Earlier, this made up the total temple structure and the outer
prakara was not present. So Veera Sangayya also took up the prakara, as per the principles of temple architecture. We may also find beautiful images of Ganapathi atop the doors situated at the entrance to Garbhagriha, Lakshmi Mantapa and the Mukhya Dwara (main entrance). It is normal practice in any temple to depict the main deity over the entrance, and the fact that all three doors carry the carvings of Ganesha is considered to be of special significance.
There are many inscriptions at Kodachadri that relate the tale of time. The Prakaras, which underwent renovation from time to time, hold a mirror to the changing mores in architecture during bygone cultures. Specifically the Vaasthu of Garbhagriha structure is very ancient and extraordinary.
The Garbhagriha is single yoni flag size (Eka yoni pramana dwaja aya). Pre entrance has a three flag proportion and is about 3½ feet wide and 12 feet long. Lakshmi Mantapa measures 134'. 11". Then comes the prakara. Beyond that, is Navaranga Mantapa. Outside the temple is a large and beautiful Deepa Sthambha ( a pillar to hold lamps). This has 21 concentric circles in which the lamps can be lighted, and when viewed from Kodachadri, one would feel as though we were looking at the Divine Makara Jyothi at Lord Manikanta's Shabarimale. This beautiful Deepa Sthambha rests on a Koorma Peeta (seat with tortoise head); on this tortoise is a huge elephant upon which Lord Ganapathi is astride, looking westward and facing Goddess
Mookambika Devi. During Navarathri, and during the Rathotsava on Phalghuni Masa Krishna Paksha Ashtami day (the day after Holi), the age-old practice of starting the pooja by praying to Lord Ganesha present on the pillar is kept up even today. In the inner corridor, just beyond the Garbhagriha, as we move around the shrine in a pradakshina, we will find totally four different idols of Ganapathi being worshipped, beginning with the Dashabhuja Ganapathi.
Of these, the Balamuri Ganapathi idol that is made of white marble is beautiful and high of significance. Then we have the image of serpent which has formed on the stone in the south-west corner. It is believed that, as we move in pradakshina, if we touch this serpent and offer our prayers, it results in several benefits, like warding of Sarpadosha, averting all doshas, and most importantly, acquiring good fortune.
Then we see the Shankara Peeta, where Adi Shankara Bhagavathpada meditated, and by virtue of his ascetic powers, visualized the form of Devi in all totality and realized the Devi herself. As we move in a pradakshina at the outer enclosure, we first find Subrahmanya swamy, then Saraswathi and then Pranalingeshwara, Partheshwara, the deity of Mukhya Prana (with a bell on the tail) installed by Vadiraja, Vishnu Brindavana, a beautiful idol of Gopalakrishna within the Brindaana (Considered as upa-pradhana Devatha), the platform for Tulasi and then the temple of Veerabhadraswamy who is the presiding deity. Entrance to this shrine being made of wood, we may see an excellent image, of Nrutya Ganapathi, right at the centre of the arch. It is said that the deity of Mukhya Prana has been situated right opposite the Veerabhadraswamy shrine with a view to balance its frightful appearance.
Mythology
Kollur is referred to in the Skanda Purana. It was originally known by the name Maharanyapura. It is said to have been home to several sages and yogis. A sage by name Kola was advised to worship Shakti at Kollur. A lingam appeared on its own accord then at Kollur, and Shiva requested Kola rishi to worship it and that in due course Shakti would manifest herself as Mahalakshmi there. The name Kolapura eventually changed to Kollur. Further, the ravages of the demon Kamha bothered the ascetics of Kollur. Upon being requested by Kola and other sages of Kollur, Shakti cursed the demon to become mooka or dumb. Undaunted, the demon continued his attrocities, and an enraged Devi vanquished him. Upon vanquishing Mookasura, Devi is believed to have merged into this self manifested Lingam in this temple. 24 km from Kollur is Maarana Ghat where it is believed that the demon Mookasura was destroyed. In the temple at Maarana Ghat, there is a Sri Chakra symbolizing Devi. Pooja pr
actices:
Here pooja practices are based on two disciplines- one as per vathula, which is one of the 28 vedas of Shaivagama, and which includes the rituals of Bali (sacrifice); secondly, as per Vijaya yagama Shastra. The five different poojas performed at the temple everyday are during Dantadavana (brushing the teeth), morning, afternoon, evening (pradhosha) and night. Pradosha Pooja is also called as "Salam Mangalarathi". It is said that Tippu Sultan, the ruler of Srirangapatna, once arrived here during pradosha pooja, witnessed the Mangalarathi, and became so impressed with the Devi, that he offered a Salaam in Muslim tradition to the Goddess, hence the name came into use. Complementary to this account is the practice observed every year, when the Muslim brethren visit the temple on a specific day for the darshana of the Goddess. This special feature has been in vogue for many years now. Of the various festivals and other celebrations held at the temple, "Sharannavarathri" which is held usually during October, and "Brahma Rathotsava" held usually in the month of March are both very prominently observed. There are several instances of childless couples, the dumb, the blind and many such other people making a vow to the Goddess and realizing their desires.
Sowparnika River:
The two rivers Agnithirtha & Sowparnika which flow in the sanctuary of mookambika descend from Kodachadri hills. The wee spring of cool water situated in between the temples of Kalabhairava and Umamaheshwara is the source of river Sowparnika. Legend says that Suparna (Garuda) did a penance on the banks of this river praying to the Goddess for the abatement of his mother Vinutha's sorrows. When the Goddess appeared before him, he prayed that the river be henceforth known after him, Suparna, and therefore came to be called as Sowparnika. At the location where he is said to have sat in penance, there is a small cave even today which is known as "Garuda's Cave".
This holy river takes birth at the Kodachadri and flows up to the edge of Anthargami (now oluru) region where two more streams called Bhrungisha and Pippalada join it. Then it flows westward, surrounding Kollur in the name of "Sampara", and proceeds to join the sea near the temple of "Maharajaswamy" (Varahaswamy) at Maravanthe. It is believed that river absorbs the elements of 64 different medicinal plants and roots as it flows, therefore it cures all the diseases of those who bathe in it. Hence a bath in this river assumes significance and is considered sacred
Places of Interest Nearby
Arishna Gundi Water falls
Scenic waterfall inside the deep jungle only approachable by trekking and due to the special effect of sunrays falling on the water droplets around the waterfall looks orange/yellow the name is Arishna (Turmeric/yellow).
Kodachadri Mountain on Western Ghats
Adi Sri Shakthi Mookambika Temple is on the top of mountain believed to be the real abode of Devi from where Adi Shankara re-established it at foothills at Kollur.
Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary is world Wildlife Fund Aided. This s
anctuary is home for endangered species animal called Lion tailed monkey.
Spread along the Kundapur-Kollur- Shimoga road, this sanctuary is generally off the tourist map.
Sigandur is famous for temple of Goddess Chaudeshwari. It is situated at a distance of 45 km from Kollur where a diversion from Kollur-Shimoga Road has to be taken at Nagodi.
How to reach Kollur
Kollur is around 36 km from Kundapur, the taluk head quarters. From Kundapur, one can take three different routes to reach Kollur.
One route is via 
Tallur-Hattiangadi-Karkunje-Vandse.
Second route via Hemmadi-Vandse and third one is via Byndoor.
However, the shortest route is through Hemmady. On the National Highway 17, after around 7 km from Kundapur, at Hemmady one has to take right deviation to reach Kollur.
The nearest railway station is Kundapura (40 km) where a few long-distance trains halt. You can get taxis from the station. The station has a waiting room for the passengers.
The nearest Airport is Mangalore International Airport ( Bajpe )There are pre-paid taxi to kollur from Airport and it is a 3 hours drive or approximately 150 kilometer.
Kollur is a 2 hour drive from Udupi, so a visit to Udupi can include Kollur. The drive is a very scenic one.
History shows there was extensive contact between Greece and kannada country. The Contacts between Present Maharastra (then kannada country) and Greece is well documente
d. Let us see the present Karnataka and Greece contacts.
Aritophanes and Euripides (4th century BC)
The Great Greek dramatists of the 4th century BC., particularly Euripides and Aristophanes, appear to have been familiar with the Kannada country and the Kannada language, and had actually used Kannada phrases and expressions in the dialogues of their characters along with Persian and Puni
c. This shows a far more intimate contact of the Greeks with Kannada culture than with Indian Culture elsewhere.
Mr. Doddarange Gowda claimed Kannada word “Ooralli” (which means in a village) written on a huge wall constructed in Alexandria by ancient Greek ruler Alexander the Great in third century BC. “The Kannada word ‘Ooralli’ is part of the remnants of 36,000 palm manuscripts that had been burnt in an accidental fire during Alexander’s time. When the accidental fire destroyed much of the palm manuscripts, Alexander ordered his commanders to erect a huge wall so that the remnants can be magnified and reproduced on it. The palm manuscripts contained texts written not only in Greek, Latin and Hebrew, but also Sanskrit and Kannada.
Ptolemy (150 AD)
A Greek Geographer Ptolemy mentions in his work places such as Badiamaioi(Badami), Inde(indi), Kalligeris(kalkeri), Modogoulla(mudagal), Petrigala (Pattadakal),Hippokoura(Huvina Hipparagi), Nagarouris(Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Tiripangalida (Gadahinglai),Soubouttou or Sabatha(Savadi), Banaouase(Banavasi), Thogorum ( Tagara), Biathana (Paithan), Sirimalaga (Malkhed) , Aloe (Ellapur) and Pasage (Palasige) showing prosperous trade between Egypt , Europe and Karanaka. And a
lso mentions Pounnata (punnata) and refers to beryls ie.the vaidurya gems of that country. He Mentions Malippala ( Malpe) sea coastal town of Karnataka. He also mentions Larika and Kandaloi , identified as Rastrika and Kuntala. The Peripelus states that the Egyptians exported woollen and linen cloth , wine and bullion to India and inturn received spices ,gems silk, pepper, Ivory, cotton , betel and tortoise shell.
Ptolemy states that in the midst of the false mouth and the Barios , there is a city called Maganur (Mangalore). Ptolemy speaks of Inland centres of pirates called Oloikhora (Alavakheda). He mentions Ariake sadinon meaning aryaka satakarni and Baithana as capital of siro(e) P(t)olmaios , ie Sri pulimey clearly indicates his knowledge of satavahana kings. The word Pulimey means one with body of Tiger in Kannada bears to the testimony of kannada origin of Satavahana kings.
Pliny ( 23AD)
Pliny talks about pirates between Muzaris and Nitrias(Netravati River). He also mentions Barace (Barcelore).
Charition Mime(150 AD)
In 1899 extensive excavations were carried out at oxyrhynchus in Egypt at the Instance of Biblical archaeological association to further biblical research. Excavations revealed a large collection of ancient Manuscripts inscribed on strips of Papyrus. Selected Papyri was published in Five Volumes. The Third Volume, Literary PapyriL Poetry, contains texts translated by D.L Page with Exhaustive notes. In this volume is a play described as a low sort of music-hall performance by an anonymous writer. The title of the play is charition and It is ascribed to the late 1st to early 2nd century AD. The plot occurs on the coast of a barbarian country (Karnataka) on the Indian Ocean. The Play contains some lines in a Barbaric (Kannada) Language. Hultzch(1904) Identified the Language to be Kannada. Dr. Sama Shastri(1926) gave translation of the Passages. Barnett and Dr.Keith said the the chief source of amusement are the humour of clown and gibberish of the savages and the ancient audience would not have understand a syllable. B.A Saletore with Pandit K.B. Ramakrishnayya translated the Gibberish to English and proved th
at they are infact Kannada. P. S . Rai Claimed that they are Tulu. However Saletore explanation of the locale of the story and Dr. Shastri analysis of Language proved that it is Kannada. The point to be noted is that any nonsense gibberish could have been passed by the author as the language being spoken by chiefs , but he sticks to the words from Kannada, which shows that the audience knowledge of kannada was good and he cant just bluff. There should have been large population of kannada speaking people or the local population should have knowledge of kannada, either case shows the extend of influence of kannada in the region.
Story
Beautiful young girl called charition was kidnapped and sold to Nayaka as flute girl in coastal Karnataka. The nayaka dedicated her to temple of Moon God Situated near Malpe. Her brother Dionysis rescued her giving wine to the nayaka and his party ,and rescued the girl when he was drunk. Which escaping the clown who came along with rescuers advised her to steal some of the valuables made to the goddess but refuses to do so citing devotion to the diety. The Kannada passages appear while the clown is with the nayakas (chiefs) serving wine.
Kuntala Janapada
The Kuntala janapada was located in southern Maharashtra and northern Karnataka state. According to Some inscriptions Karnataka , the Nandas (400BC to 300BC) ruled Kuntala. So this Janapada was annexed into Magada Empire. So we have very sketchy details about the Janapada. But the information available speaks about the glory of this janapada.
Kuntala Geography
It comprised of Kolhapur, Satara, Solapur, Ahmadnagar and Bid(Maharastra), as well, North Karnataka and the Simoga and Citaldurga districts of the old Mysore State. In an inscriptional passage the upper valley of the Krishna is said to be in the country of Kuntala( Mirashi, Studies in lndology, Vol. I, p. 9.). In the Udayasundarikatha of Soddhala (11th cen. AD.) Pratisthana on the Godavari is the capital of the Kuntala country. The Aihole inscription (7th cen. AD.) speaks of three Maharastras, comprised of Vidarbha, 
Aparanta and Kuntala. It is described as, a seven and half lakh province. The Early Calukyas of Badami and the Later Calukyas of Kalyani were known as Kuntaleshwaras or lords of Kuntala. Satavahanas and Rastrakutas were known as Kuntalesvaras(rulers from Kuntala) .
Kuntala Janapada Coins
Kuntala Janapada issued coi
ns dated to 600 to 450 BC. This is one of the seventeen Janapadas which issued coins before Mauryas. The usual coin from Kuntala has a mysterious design that resembles a system of pulleys. These coins have previously been assigned to the Ashmaka janapada, but are now assigned to Kuntala.Because of the force of the striking of the die on a round planchet, these coins have a scyphate shape.The coins are in copper and Silver. The highest denomination weighing from 6.3g to 7.5g. Their symbols include Scorpion.
Myth of Kuntala
In the City of Ai-Khanoum a artifact called Indian Myth of Kuntala was found, seems to be 
Astronomical object, specially a narrative plate made of shell inlaid with various materials and colors.
Ai-Khanoum (Uzbek language), probably the historical Alexandria on the Oxus, also possibly later named Eucratidia), was founded in the 4th century BCE, following the conquests of Alexander The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom covered the areas of Bactria and Sogdiana, comprising today's northern Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, the easternmost area of the Hellenistic world, from 250 BCE to 125 BCE. The historic site was destroyed by Taliban.
Kannada works from earlier centuries mentioned in the Kavirajamarga are not yet traced. Some ancient texts now considered extinct but referenced in later centuries are
Kavirajamarga refers to early writers such as King Durvinita of the sixth century
Ravikirti, the author of the Aihole record of 636 AD
Prabhrita (650 AD) by Syamakundacharya
Chudamani (Crest Jewel-650 AD or earlier) by Srivaradhadeva, also known as Tumbuluracharya, which is a work of 96,000 verse-measures and a commentary on logic (Tatwartha-mahashastra).
Karnateshwara Katha, a eulogy for King Pulakesi II, is said to have belonged to the seventh century
Gajastaka, a work on elephant management by King Shivamara II, belonged to the eighth century
Chandraprabha-purana by Sri Vijaya, a court poet of King Amoghavarsha I, is ascribed to the early ninth century.
Buddhist commentators of the tenth century CE (in the commentary on Nemrinatham, a Tamil grammatical work) make references that show that Kannada literature must have flourished before fourth century AD. And Aspires Tamil Literature to make to the standards of Kannada literature.
Attempts have been made in dictionary-making in Kannada from 10th Century to 19th Century. Dictionaries produced during this period are useful for the study of Kannada literature. They contain only selected words with meanings in Kannada without etymology.
19th Century is considered as a dark period in Kannada literature. At this time Karnataka was not an independent State; its parts were attached to Bombay , Madras , Hyderabad States and Mysore was a princely state under the influence of British Government. Under such circumstances, Kannada survived with the patronage of Mummadi Krishnaraja Wadeyar.
In the later half of the 19th century, in northern part of Karnataka, Kannada primary schools and training institutions were started. Missionaries and Kannada Pandits began to work for the renaissance of Kannada. Because of the efforts of these people, Kannada dictionaries were published.
Dictionaries prepared in the later half of the 19th century to the present day, are mainly for the use of students of Kannada and English. Except one or two, these dictionaries contain words with meanings and do not give without etymology etc. The dictionaries under this category published so far are under.
English-Kannada Nighantu : (1946)
by an editorial board of Kannada scholars, published by the University of Mysore . The first three dictionaries are compiled for the use of Kannada students of English language especially of boys of first and second grade Anglo-Vernacular schools. They are not only useful to Kannada students of English but also to English and European students of Kannada. The fourth dictionary has been compiled by eminent scholars of Kannada for the use of persons possessing knowledge of English of about High school standard and seeking lexical help in the study of English book and journals on the various subjects of living interest to the world of today. This is also useful to teachers, professors, writers and journalists etc. But this is not within the reach of a common man of Karnataka.
Sanskrit - Kannada Dictionaries
English-Kannada Dictionaries :
Arabic - Kannada Dictionaries
Wootz is the anglicized version of ukku in kannada language of the state of Karnataka, a term denoting steel. Literary accounts suggest that the steel from the Karnatka was exported to Europe, China, the Arab world and the Middle East.
Though an ancient material, wootz steel also fulfills the description of an advanced material, since it is an ultra-high carbon steel exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness and held sway over a millennium in three continents- a feat unlikely to be surpassed by advanced materials of the current era.
Wootz deserves a place in the annals of western science due to the stimulus provided by the study of this material in the 18th and 19th centuries to modern metallurgical advances, not only in the metallurgy of iron and steel, but also to the development of physical metallurgy in general and metallography in particular.
A description from the Crusades of the Damascus blades is as follows: One blow of a Damascus sword would cleave a European helmet without turning the edge or cut through a silk handkerchief drawn across it. One sixth century writer describes blades as having a water pattern whose wavy streaks are glistening-it is like a pond on whose surface the wind is gliding.
Carbon Nanotubes
According to Robert Floyd Curl, Jr., Nobel Prize Winner in Chemistry in 1996, Indian craftsmen used nanotechnology in Wootz steel as well as in paintings. More specifically carbon nanotubes, first announced by Russian scientists in 1952, was found in the sword of Tipu Sultan as well as in Ajanta paintings. Carbon nanotubes which are cylidrical fullerenes have extraordinary strength in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus
This steel making process was practiced in Karnataka since great antiquity. The ancient Indian steel was known as Damascene steel in Persia and was in great demand in the Persian courts of the First Millennium BC. Even Alexander was presented a sword made of such steel. Coze studied the etymology of the terms denoting steel. Taking into account the fact that the names given to steel in different languages have always a technical content (hardness, resistance, etc.), Le Coze traced the transformation of the term Wootz, denoting the Indian crucible steel, through the Arab texts of the 9-12th centuries AD describing the preparation of the crucible steel named fulad. He discovered that fulad had an Indian origin of the word as transformed by Arab travellers.
Wootz in History
There are numerous early literary references to steel from India from Mediterranean sources including one from the time of Alexander (3rd c. BC) who was said to have been presented with 100 talents of Indian steel.
During the reigns of the Roman Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, Ferrum Indium appears in the list of dutiable articles.
An ancient Greek chemical treatise entitled "On the Tempering of Indian Steel". Edrisi has noted that "The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron. They have also workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world. It is impossible to find anything to surpass the edge that you get from Indian Steel". This passage which has been quoted in the notes to the Periplus on page 71 proves beyond doubt, in the words of a foreign historian, that the art of smelting and casting iron was well developed in ancient India.
Pant , Bronson has summarised several accounts of the reputation of Indian iron and steel in Greek and Roman sources which suggest the export of high quality iron and steel from ancient India.
Zaky pointed out that it was the Arabs who took ingots of wootz steel to Damascus following which a thriving industry developed there for making weapons and armour of this steel, the renown of which has given the steel its name.
In the 12th century the Arab Edrisi mentioned that the Hindus excelled in the manufacture of iron and that it was impossible to find anything to surpass the edge from Indian steel, and he also mentioned that the Indians had workshops where the most famous sabres in the world were forged,.
while other Arab records mention the excellence of Hinduwani or Indian steel as discussed by Egerton.
Several European travellers including Francis Buchanan and Voysey from the 17th century onwards observed the manufacture of steel in Karnataka and Deccan by a crucible process.
By the late 1600s shipments running into tens of thousands of wootz ingots were traded to Persia. This indicates that the production of wootz steel was almost on an industrial scale in what was still an activity predating the Industrial Revolution in Europe.
Marco Polo has mentioned that iron and Ondanique was sold in the markets of Kerman in Iran. The word Ondanique has been interpreted as a corruption of the Persian word Hundwaniy which meant 'Indian Steel'.
Indeed the word wootz is a corruption of the word for steel ukku
Wonder called Ukku (Wootz)
The legends associated with the excellent properties of the wootz steel and the beautiful patterns on Damascus blades caught the imagination of European scientists in the 17th-19th centuries since the use of high-carbon iron alloys was not really known previously in Europe and hence played an important role in the development of modern metallurgy. British, French and Russian metallography developed largely due to the quest to document this structure. Similarly the textured Damascus steel was one of the earliest materials to be examined by the microstructure. Smith has fascinatingly elucidated this early historiography of the interest in the study of wootz steel and its significance to the growth of metallurgy.
Although iron and steel had been used for thousands of years the role of carbon in steel as the dominant element was found only in 1774 by the Swedish chemist Tobern Bergman, and was due to the efforts of Europeans to unravel the mysteries of wootz. Tobern Bergman was able to determine that the compositions of cast iron, steel and wrought iron varied due to the composition of plumbago i.e. graphite or carbon. As suggested by Smith the Swed
ish studies received an impetus following the setting up of a factory to make gun barrels of welded Damascus steels, and it was on observation of the black and white etching of the steel and iron parts that a Swede metallurgist guessed that there was carbon in steel, and interest in replicating true Damascus steels followed.
In the early 1800's, following the descriptions of crucible steel making in Karnataka by the European travellers, there was a spurt in interest in Europe in investigating south Indian wootz steel, from which the fabled Damascus blades were known to be made, with the aim of reproducing it on an industrial scale. Mushet's studies in 1804 were one of the first to correctly conclude that there was more carbon in wootz than in steel from England, although this idea did not gain currency until later. Michael Faraday, the inventor of electricity and one of the greatest of the early experimenters and material scientists, as pointed out by Peter Day, was also fascinated by wootz steel and enthusiastically studied it. Along with the cutler Stodart, Faraday attempted to study how to make Damascus steel and they incorrectly concluded that aluminium oxide and silica additions contributed to the properties of the steel and their studies were published in 1820. They also attempted to make steel by alloying nickel and noble metals like platinum and silver and indeed Faraday's studies did show that that the addition of noble metals hardens steel. Stodart reported that wootz steel had a very fine cutting edge.
Following this the interest in Damascus steel moved to France. Wadsworth and Sherby have pointed out that Faraday's research made a big impact in France where steel research on weapons thrived in the Napoleonic period. The struggle to characterize the nature of wootz steel is well reflected in the efforts of Breantin the 1820's from the Paris mint who conducted an astonishing number of about 300 experiments adding a range of elements ranging from platinum, gold. silver, copper, tin, zinc, lead, bismuth, manganese, arsenic, boron and even uranium, before he finally also came to the conclusion that the properties of Damascus steel were due to 'carburetted' steel. Smith has indicated that the analysis of ingots of wootz steel made in the 1800's showed them to have over 1.3% carbon. The Russian Anasoff also studied the process of manufacturing wootz steel and succeeded in making blades of Damascus steel by the early 1800's.
In the early 1900's wootz steel continued to be studied as a special material and its properties were better understood as discussed further in the next section. Belaiew reported that blades of such steel to cut a gauze handkerchief in midair. In 1912, Robert Hadfield who studied crucible steel from Sri Lanka recorded that Indian wootz steel was far superior to that previously produced in Europe. Indeed in the 18th-19th century special steels were produced in Europe as crucible steels, as discussed by Barracloug.
Steel History
The first iron artefacts go back to the 4th and the 3rd millennium BC and were found in Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Egypt. Metallurgy, however, did not begin with the early manufacturing of meteoric iron, but much later, with the extraction and the processing of iron ores. The first ovens built by our ancestors could achieve the melting point for copper but they could not reach the temperature necessary to obtain liquid iron. As a consequence, only an unrefined, iron-rich sponge bulk could be produced at the end of the reduction process carried out utilizing coal. The iron obtained could be forged but it had low toughness. Hittite(Immigrants from India) were first to develop the new technology of iron metallurgy and this happened in Anatolia, around the XIV-XIII century BC. The poet Virgil uses indeed the metaphor "Chalibes'metal" to indicate iron or steel and the modern Greek word for steel is "hali-vas". Assyrians, Egyptians and Dorians all made use of iron for military purposes but it is the Hittites who maintain the monopoly on iron technology until their defeat around the year 1200 BC. The advent of the Etruscan iron metallurgy and its development by the Romans, marks the transition from the first to the second Iron Age. Metallurgy did not undergo substantial innovation but rather improved previously developed technologies. The real start of the ironmaking developments, which still continue today, is generally situated in the 14th century, when the utilization of larger shaft furnaces for the production of iron spread. This type of furnace, called "stuckofen" , is generally recognized as the forerunner of the blast furnace.
Karnataka Steel
Karnataka has the richest resources of iron ores of the order of 1000 million tons of Iron and 25000 million tons of magnetic ores. Major deposits occur in Bellary, Chickmagalur and Chitradurga districts. Some of the richest deposits analyzing to more than 62 per cent iron ore occur in Bellary .
Among the four most outstanding metallurgical achievements of antiquity, the production of Wootz steel is the most dazzling one. The development of this steel occurred in Karnataka and allied regions. Wootz 
is the anglicized version of ukku in the Kannada language of the state of Karnataka.
A reference must be made to the pioneering role of Sir M Visvesvaraya in establishing in 1923 the Mysore Iron and Steel Limited at Bhadravathi, as the first public sector steel plant in the country. The company started with a miniature charcoal blast furnace and was gradually transformed into an alloy and special steel plant. LD , electric furnace and continuous casting were introduced at various stages . A diversification into production of ferroalloys has taken place. Today the plant is known as Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Limited.
The major consideration for locating the Jindal Vijayanagar Steel Plant at Torenagallu in Bellary District is the presence of extensive high grade iron ore deposits in Bellary -Hospet region. This plant is to make use of the Corex process. Currently scientists at I I Sc are modelling the corex process.
Kudremukh means the face of a horse, as the profile of the mountain near Mangalore resembles it. This is no ordinary mountain but a rich lode of iron ore. It is one of the largest iron ore deposits of the world and the largest in Asia. Average daily production of ore is 70,000 tons.
The famous Mysore Palace in Mysore near Bangalore built by the Wodeyars at the turn of the century was the first royal palace in India to make use of cast iron in architectural construction.
Under the patronage of the Mauryas and Satvahanas, Buddhism flourished in Karnataka, there are still numerous places of Buddhist interest spread across the State.
Aihole
Aihole, is today an insignificant village in Bijapur district of north Karnataka and reaching it involves an obstacle course: an excruciatingly slow passenger train to Badami, an hour’s wait for a bus and jostling to get on. The vehicle rattles across the interminable hot plains and flat scrub of north Karnataka. To do just 46 kilometers from Badami to Aihole, the bus needs four tedious hours. But alight at Aihole and the travails are forgotten! For Aihole is one of the most remarkable temple sites in the country with one hundred and twenty temples, big nad small, in different styles, all in a small village.
Art historians say Aihole was a workshop for temple architects and sculptors patronized by early Chalukyan monarchs. Here are some of the earliest structural temples in stone in the country, dating from 450 AD and, among them, is one of the four Buddhist shrines in Karnataka. So we make our way to Aihole’s hillock, Meguti, to the rock cut Buddhist shrine. It is of special interest to us because it is the most important surviving Buddhist temple in Karnataka.
The Chaitya, a double stories structure, is half structural and half excavated in rock. The sanctum sanctorum is in the upper storey. It has a rectangular verandah of 8.78 m x 2.15 m. In the centre of the Verandah’s ceiling is a relief of Buddha in preaching posture. Of the three Buddha sculptures at Aihole, this is the best preserved and is 61cm in Height. He is seated on the padmapitha in the satvaparyankasana, that is, his right hand is placed against his chest in the vyakhyan mudra while the left is placed on the right foot with the palm facing upwards. His right shoulder and right breast are uncovered. There is a triple umbrella above him and his attendants are nearby.
Ashoka and Buddhism
Buddhism was founded in north India in about 500 BC when Siddharth Gautama, born a prince, achieved enlightenment. It is widely held that the religion first emerged during Mauryan times when there was a missionary zeal. Parts of Karnataka were subject to the rule of the Mauryas. Chandragupta Maurya’s son Bindusara (298-273 BC) and Bindusara’s son Asoka (269-232 BC) caused some of his edicts to be put up here. Asoka’s grandson Samprati Chandragupta is believed to have come to Karnataka where he spent his last years. Eleven Asokan edicts, four in Bellary district, three in Raichur district and three others in Chitradurga district bear witness to the Mauryan presence in Karnataka.
Some hold the view, however, t
hat such rock edicts merely prove that Karnataka was within the jurisdiction of Mauryan kings, but not necessarily the advent of Buddhism here. The Sinhalese chronicles, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, mention Mangaliputtatissa, a contemporary of Asoka and reputed to be the emperor’s teacher and mentor. He had sent missionaries to Mahishaka (Today Mysore region) under Mahadeva, and to Banavasi under Rakkhita, to preach the gospel. That would firmly indicate Buddhist prevalence in Karnataka.
In point of fact, Buddhist doctrine held sway in Karnataka even before Asoka’s time. Mahisasana, a form of Hinayana Buddhism, spread after the first convention of Buddhism in Rajgraha (477 BC) to Avanti, and to areas south of it to what are today’s Karnataka. Thus, while Asoka accepted Buddhism only in 268 BC, Buddhism was prevalent in Karnataka two centuries prior to the Mauryan monarch.
Early on, Buddhism separated into Sthavarvad (Hinayana) and Mahasanghikvad (Mahayana) which developed into Mahisasana. This branch stretched upto Banavasi from 5th century BC to 3rd century BC, that is, after the very first Buddhist convention in 477 BC and certainly long before Asoka.
Why then, are there are no Buddhist relics found from those centuries before Asoka?
The answer is quite simple. There was no idol worship in Buddhism. There had been no sculptures, carvings nor erection of stupas and inscriptions before the Asokan stupas at Sanchi and Sarnath. Prior to them, there were only earthern stupas which could not survive the ravages of time. There is one exception, however, excavations near Banavasi in 1971 revealed stupas and bricks that have been dated to the 2nd and 3rd century BC. A Buddhist deepasthambha (lamp post) of those times was found at the village Togarsi near Banavasi. By and large, in Karnataka, the Hnayana Buddhism that prevailed did not deify Buddha but looked upon him at human level, as perfect man. Paucity of actual remnants before Asoka’s time is thus explained.
The Mauryan inscriptions do not merely indicate the empire’s boundary. They also assert that Buddhism flourished there because the very purpose of Asoka’s edicts was to spread universal message to the masses. Buddhism duly spread and flourished. In sum, the Mauryan was undoubtedly the golden age of Buddhism.
Satavahanas
The Satavahanas were successors to the Mauryas and ruled in Banavasi, as is evident from the Nasik inscription of Gautamiputra Satakarni and the copper plates from Hirehadagali. There is a Prakrit inscription belonging to the second century on the stone Naga effigy fund at the Madhukesvara temple, whi
ch refers to the fact that Siva-skandanagar-sri, daughter of Satakarni of Chutukula, the king of Vaijayantipura (i.e. Banavasi) was responsible for the installation of that Naga effigy, and the Vihara. A copper plate inscription of 338 AD likens a Banavasi king to a bodhisattva (reincarnation) in his great compassion towards all living beings (praninam parama karnikataya bodhisattvo pamanasya).
From 30 BC to the second century AD, the Satavahanas ruled from Pratisthana (modern day Paithan) on the bank of Godavari river at Aurangabad. Their support to Buddhism is evident from Pliny (1st century AD) whose account mentions Prakrit inscription of Gvinaya Pitaka, referring to Setakannika, which shows that Buddhism was flourishing in Karnataka. Mahavagga, a composer after Asoka’s time endorses this.
The Satvahanas a Karnataka dynasty, as Dharwad and Bellary districts are called Shantavahani Hara (or Shantavahana region). Satavahanas kings were called Kunthala kings, the old name for Karnataka. At Sannati (Gulbarga district), as well as Vadgoan Madhavpur (near Belgaum) and Brahmagiri (Chitradurga district), there are remains of monuments of their period. The Uttara Kannada area of Banavasi has their inscription at Vasan in Dharwad district, and there are remains of a brick temple. The Chandravalli inscriptions that were unearthed in 1888, strongly suggest that worshipers of Buddha were here during the early centuries of the Christian era. The leader coins of the Satvahana kings bear the figure of a humped bull and on the other side of the coins are the unmistakable emblems of the bodhi tree and the chaitya (cairn). Small sculptures of Gandharva, a Buddhist yaksha, are also found.
The earliest epigraphic evidence in this regard (latter half of second century AD) is the stone memorial inscribed in Prakrit. It is that of Vasistapura Sivasiri Pulamari Rajana Mahadevi Sirijantamula, wife of a king of Banavasi who constructed a stambha and a Vihara for the Mahisasanas at Nagarjunakonnda.
Lanka Source
Another chronicler, Mahavamso, cites an important event. In the first century, Dattagamini, King of Ceylon, built a vihara and 80000 bhikus of Vanavasi had attended! Bhutpala, a merchant of Banavasi, was responsible for carving the famed Buddhist cave at Karla where an inscription says it was the best in the whole country.
Sannati
It is at Sannati, (Chitapur, taluk, Gulbarga district), on both banks of the river Bhima, that many Buddhist stupas of the Satvahana times have been found. It resembles Amravati and was the Buddhist centre of the Satvahana period of pre-Christian era and is spread over a three kilometer area. Fine sculptures can be seen all along and the Buddhist ruins found there are in large numbers. They include remnants of stupas, stone pottery for holy bones and ayaka stambha which has symbolic representation of birth, parinishnishkramana, enlightenment, preach
ing and nirvana (salvation) of Buddha. Inscriptions in the Brahmi script contain names of those who gave grants to sangharama, stupas and viharas. The words – visiriputa sirisata Mahasataraha – show the beginning of the Christian era and reference to Banavasi is found. There are stupas carved in stone, and another stupa (1st to 3rd century AD) has Buddha’s feet. The Sannatis (feudatories) of Satvahanas, known as Mahabhojas, had then ruled the Banavasi area. An inscriptions of that period says: “Nagamulida, wife of Maharathi, daughter of the Mahabhoja, King of Banavasi, mother of Khanda Nagashtak, constructed a cave residence at Kanheri (near today’s Bombay) of Buddhist bhikus.”
After Satavahanas
After the Satavahanas, Karnataka fell into the hands of the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Chuttu Shatkarnis (who were feudatories of the Satavahanas) ruling from Banavasi after the fall of the Satavahanas. Pallava domination ended when two dynasties, the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of Kolar (345 AD) held sway.
The Gangas, ruling from Talakadu, followed the vedic religion but were tolerant towards Buddhism. A Sanskrit copperplate (400 AD) issued by Padangala Madhava (440-470 AD), a Ganga ruler, indicated land grants to a Buddhist vihara (gangarajya madhava-sarmanah sasana Buddha-sattvaya dattam). There were Buddhist viharas alive and active and Buddhism was still powerful in the Ganga territory.
Like the Gangas, the Kadambas were also tolerant towards Buddhism as epigraphic evidence shows. The Kadamba capital was also Banavasi, (known as Vaijayanti,) and their century was a prominent one for Buddhism in Karnataka. Chinese traveller, Hieun Tsang, visited Banavasi in the 7th century AD and saw 1000 sangharamas and three stupas. He says: “By the side of the royal palace is a great sangharama with 300 priests, all men of distinction. This convent has a great vihara 100 in height.”
Recent excavations of the site of Banavasi have given the remains of a Buddhist stupa. The large apsidal structure is what remains and it was planned like a dharma-chakra.
The Buddhist Chaitya in front of which we stood at Aihole, is pre western Chalukyan and indicates the influence of Mahayana. It was built around the 5th century and is 25 feet high. We now make our way to Badami in another rickety bus headed toward the erstwhile capital city of the western Chalukyas in the 6th century. These rulers were also associated with Buddhism and relics here have survived in the shape of a Buddhist cave datable to the 6th century. There is also a figure, identifiable as Padmapani, the Bodhisattva of the same period. Hieun Tsang has stated that during the time of Pulakesin II (642 AD) in Banavasi (or Konkanpura), there were 400 Sangharamas and 10000 followers of Buddhism.
Tara
In Gadag Taluk, Dharwad district, at Dambal, there was a Buddhist centre as late as 12th century. According to an inscription of 1095 AD, a temple of the Buddhist deity Tara and a Buddhist vihara were built by 16 merchants during the reign of Lakshmidevi, queen of Vikramaditya VI. Another temple of Tara, built at Dambal was by Sethi Sangarmaya of Lokkigundi. Karnataka was indeed the place where the worship of Tara gained ground. Tara became celebrated in Mahayana Buddhism (especially Mantrayana) and acquired popularity as the mother of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, as the power of enlightenment and as the consort of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the patron divinity of the Mantrayana sect in Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia and China.
Tara’s consort Avalokitaesvara-bodhisattva is the Siva of the Saiva cult and there is the correspondence of Tara with Durga. The association between Tara and Avalokita (Lokesvara) is emphasized in Karnataka. In Balligame, on the banks of the river Varada, a Buddhist Vihara known as Jayanti Prabuddha Vihara was built in 1065 by Rupa Byhattaya, the minister of the Chalukyan king Ahavamalla, and the deities that were worshipped there were Tara Bhagavati, Kesava, Lokesvara and Buddha. A Dambala inscription of 1095 AD begins with the customary invocation namo buddhyana and goes go to describe at length the greatness of Tara-bhagavati.
In Kolivada, Hubbali taluk, Dharwad district, an icon of Tara has been discovered belonging to about the thirteenth century and inscribed on the pedestal of this icon are the words siddham om namo bhagavatayai Aryatarayai, followed by the usual statement of the Buddha’s teaching in brief.
The Vihara on Kadari Hill in Mangalore (Dakshina Kannada) was an important site for Mahayana Buddhism. There are three exquisite bronze statues, now in the Manjunatha temple, one of which is of the Mahayana deity Avalokitesvara bodhisattva (consort of Tara) called Lokesvara. The other two bronzes are those of seated Buddha in contemplation.
Buddhism, which never became prevalent in Tulu-nadu, continued to survive till the thirteenth century. It gradually got fused with Saivite ideology. Thereafter, it became difficult for Buddhism to survive, especially as it lost its specific identity and got merged with Saivism. There are estimated to be 75000 Bu
ddhists in Karnataka of which Tibetans form a substantial portion. Since the year 1900, the South India Buddhist Association saw Buddhism taking roots and in Kolar Gold Fields near Bangalore there is a Buddhist Vihara at Champion Reef. The Mahabodhi Society of India founded a Buddhist Vihara in Bangalore in 1940 and since 1956, Buddhism has got a fillip under Acharya Buddha Rakkkhita who has published over 50 books and founded an institute, a vidyapeeth and a hospital. Very much in evidence are the four Tibetan settlements of Karnataka, at Bailkuppe (near Mysore), Mundgod (in north Kanara district), Cauvery Valley, and at Kollegal. The most important Tibetan Buddhist monasteries are Thegchay Ling and Namgoling, both at Bailkuppe.
Kannada is the first Administrative language of south India and third after Prakrit & sanskrit in India (Since Greek and Aramic are used in territories outside India ). This is arrived on the basis of full-length Inscriptions or Grants in the form of Copper plates and others.
First full length Inscription in
| Prakrit | 230BC | Ashoka Edicts | Emperor Ashoka - Mauryan | both North and South India |
| Greek , Aramic | 230BC | Asoka Edicts. | Emperor Ashoka - Mauryan | Afghanistan and Middle East |
| Sanskrit | 1 Century AD | Mathura Inscription | Sadosa – Indo Scythian | North India |
| 375 - 425AD | Nagarjunakonda Inscription | Ehuvula Santamula – Ikshvaku | Andhra Pradesh | |
| Kannada | 450AD | Halmidi inscription | Kakusthavarman – Kadambas | Karnataka |
| Telugu | 575 AD | Erragudipadu , Cuddapah district | Erikal, Muthuraju - Renati Chodas | Andhra Pradesh |
| Tamil | 610AD | cave-temples at Tiruchi and Pallavaram | Mahendravarman I - Pallava | Tamil Nadu |
| Malayalam | 830AD | Vazapalli copper plate Inscription | RajaShekara - Chera | Kerala |
| Marathi | 974AD | Marmuri Copper Plate | Irivabedanga Satyasraya - Chalukya | Maharastra |
| Hindi | 1022AD | Shyopur | Unknown | Madyapradesh |
| Kashmiri | 11th Century AD | Grants | Udai Singh - Chambas | Jammu & Kashmir |
| Tulu | 1200 AD | Alupe Inscription | Kulashekara Alupendra - Alupa | Karnataka |
| Arabic | 12th centuryAD | Grants |
| North India |
| Persian | 14th century AD | Grants |
| North India |
| Oriya | 1400AD | Puri Plats | Narashima IV, Eastern Gangas | Orissa |
| Gujarati | 15th century AD | Kathiawar |
| Gujarat |
| Bengali | 15th century AD | Copper Plates | king Govindamaikya | Tripura |
| Portuguese | 16th Century AD |
|
| Goa |
| Assamese | 1630AD | Bhomoraguri Inscription | Pratap Sinha , Ahom King | Assam |
| Dutch | 17th Century AD | Chengulpet |
| Tamil Nadu |
| French, English | 17th century AD |
|
| All over India |
| Urdu | 18th century AD |
|
| North India |
Kannada Administative Language
The Craft of Wood Carving
Karnataka has come to occupy pride of place in the field of wood carving. Holding a vast densely populated forest reserves, the State provides enough raw material for its craftsmen who continue to employ age-old techniques for carving, inlay-work, coating, painting and lacquer articles in wood.
Ancient temple wood architecture is the foremost specimen of wood carving, where wood has been used extensively and carved finely into delicate sculptures. The ceilings and gateways of royal homes and the temples showcases hundreds of intricately carved images of gods and goddesses. Rosewood articles are a one of the shopper's delight, and tourist take home with them articles or sculptures carved out of rosewood, beautifully carved rosewood elephant is most famous of all. The Maharaja's palace in Mysore and the mausoleum of Tipu Sultan in Srirangapattna are the foremost specimen of master craftsmanship where visitors get stun by the startling delicacy in the work.
Ivory Carving
Ivory carving is another popular craft prevailing in the entire state. Articles carved delicately without excessively ornate image adjoining the figures, mostly showcasing the figures of god and goddess. Some of Mysore's masterpieces in ivory are now preserved in the Heritage Museum in Russia and in the South Kensington Museum, London.
Stone Carving
Shilpis the stone carvers of Karnataka are supreme of all, they had won the master crafts-man awards at the national level while others have been assigned to carve stone idols for Hindu temples abroad, especially in the USA.
Sandalwood Craft
Talking about sandalwood, Mysore charm the fragrance of this soft wood which is extensively used to produce beautiful art pieces. There are vast range of sandalwood product carves by the highly skilled workers, the gudigar families of Shimoga, Uttara Kannada and Mysore districts specialize in this craft. Krishna images are very popular among the devout, besides articles like lamp shades, trays, jewel boxes, decorative articles, combs and even walking sticks with rosewood handles.
Doll Making
Doll making is another craft famous in Karnataka evenly arranged on wooden platforms, decorated and displayed during the nine day Dusshera. Kinnal and Gokak in north Karnataka and Channapatna on the Bangalore/Mysore are famous for doll-making. The art of making puppet has galvanized many wood artisans and painters to produce a variety of puppets. Besides puppets made of wood, Karnataka also makes leather puppets which are more extensively used.
Metal Ware
Bidar in Karnataka, is a famous for bidriware-a craft done on a metal plate of zinc, copper, tin and lead. Bidri articles ornamental jugs, bowls, plates pen holders, candle sticks and even paper knives. Nagamangala near Mysore is famous for its bronze items and Mangalore in the west coast boasts of domestic articles made of bell-metal. Metalware in Karnataka has a rich and ancient tradition, Udupi - the temple town is famous for its small images and ritual objects, while Karkala - an ancient Jain center, is well-known for its Jain icons.
Karnataka Mysore Paintings
Nandi Dhwaja
The dance performance in Nandi Dhwaja consist of an attractively decorated bamboo pole measuring about 20 to 25 feet long and 4 inch wide in circumference. Nandi Dhwaja is performed by skilled and experienced dancers. The performance begins with the erection of the Nandi pole which is initially thrust into a 'Navara'-the pouch worn by the performer. Balancing the pole at 90o , the dancer accomplishes rhythmic movements and intricate acrobats to the emotional tunes of the musical accompaniments. This dance is prevalent in all parts of the state except Kodagu.
Beesu Kamsale
The artistes of Beesu Kamsale are an expert singing community. But vigorous, rhythmic movements dominate the performance of Beesu Kamsale. Narration is regulated to the background.
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Pata Kunitha
In Pata Kunitha, the major emphasis is more on the manipulation of pata (embellished bamboo pole, each measuring 10 to 15 feet high, carried by 10 to 15 artistes) than the narration. The dances Beesu Kamsale and Pata are widely popular in Mysore region.
Bana Devara Kunitha
In Bana Devara Kunitha, the folk artistes will be preoccupied with attaining perfect harmony to the clinking of bow bells rather than on oral communication of any religious content. The striking feature of this dance is archery. This form of dance is found in places like Hassan, Chitradurga and Chikkamagulur.
Puja Kunitha
In Puja Kunitha dance, the emphasis is more on the visual presentation than the oral narration. Here the spectacular exhibition of colourful bamboo structure is ably matched by the skilful body movements. It is prevalent in Bangalore and Mandya districts.
Karaga
Karaga is known for its rigidity with high ritualistic significance. It is popular in Mysore and Bangalore districts.
Gorava Mela
In Gorava mela which is extensively practiced in Mysore, Shimoga, Belgaum and Dharwad districts, the artistes display immense abilities of oral communication and perception. Goravas are singing tribe who narrates stories of deeper religious value.
Dollu Kunitha
Dollu, a group dance which is widely practiced in Melkote in Mandya district offers a desirable atmosphere for the integration of new ideas in an unusual way, through interaction and exchange of information between the two groups of performers. Dollu, a semi circular dance, with a brilliant combination of sound and speed, performed by the Kuruba community in North Karnataka, Shimoga and Chitradurga districts is worth noting. The soul of Dollu Kunitha is the indigenous folk instrument called Dollu which when struck emits a thunderous sound. Mythological, historical and social themes are narrated by the chief narrator with the powerful musical accompaniment consisting of the Dollu, the cymbals and the flute providing appropriate musical setting to the narration. Messages on loan melas, small savings, adult education and population control programmes have been integrated into this folk dance.
Bhagavanthike
Bhagavanthike involves a competition of a witty dialogue between two groups of 10 to 12 artistes, who wearing spectacular costumes recreate the fanciful tradition of folk dance. Bhagavata, who is the chief narrator cum performer makes the folk dance of Bhagavanthike, a viable medium of non-formal communication. There is also a jester. During the performance, the jester sings and dances along with other artistes sometimes following the traditional and sometimes setting up new precedents and serves as a change-agent. Attracting wider attention through his acrobatics, the jester skillfully adapts himself to the changing needs and demands of the audience eventually establishing a rapport with the audience with ease.
Mari Kunitha
The community dance, Mari Kunitha which is wide spread in Mysore and Mandya districts, display an insular flexibility in the presentation and narration. Originally belonging to the Shakti cult, these dances consist of performers standing either in rows or forming a big circle and dancing to the tune of 'Chakravaddya', an indigenous flat percussion instrument. The dance begins at a slow pace, gathers momentum, reaches a frenzied pitch as the tempo of the beat increases and continues till the rhythm fades away. The songs are sung intermittently at each pause and hence could be heard by the audience clearly. In the dances like Kombat and Billat, which is similar to the Mari Kunitha, the artistes attired in customary 'Kodava' costume perform carrying deer-horns to the accompaniment of a drum and the dudi- a small drum.
Urimaramma
The folk dance of 'Urimaramma' is performed by a team of a husband and wife. The artistes are nomads, wandering from one place to another carrying an unusually designed mobile temple, eventually facilitating a simultaneous performance of dance and worshipping of the deity, right at the door of the people. The performer, acting like a messenger emphasises on a social problem and he tries to motivate the people to invoke the blessings of the deity so as to enable them to overcome an impending crisis.
Bhoota Nrutya
In the coastal region of South Kanara, the Bhoota Nrutya takes different forms, depending upon the type of the ghost it represents. Koratti, Koraga Taniya, Ali Bhoota, Punjurli, Kuppe Punjurli, Kalkuda, Kallurti, Shiradi Bhoota and many others represent a galaxy of ghosts worshipped in places like Puttur, Mangalore, Bantwal and Uppinangadi.
Vatte Kola
This dance is another folk dance that comes under the umbrella of the Bhuta tradition. It is dedicated to ghost worship. The presentation of Vatte Kola begins with the preparation of burning coal in an open field. The performers are required to walk over the burning charcoal pits. The performer of Vatte Kola is an excellent communicator who steals the show through his sincere worshipping of deity for the total welfare of the community.
Lingada Birana Kunitha
This dance is wide spread in the southern parts of the state and where the dancers perform splendidly, holding a sword in one hand and a shield bearing their religious emblem in the other to the tune of the devotional narration.
Puravanthike
Puravanthike is a highly expressive and credible narrative art which draws its strength from the heavy sprinkling of riddles in its content. These riddles are folksy, woven around familiar things of daily life and also amuse people in the form of simple folk poetry and they serve as excellent channels of social education. In Puravanthike the costumes and ornaments are colourful. Dressed like warriors, the dancers present a skilful display of vigour with a sword in one hand and a trident in the other.
Chennu Kunitha
The folk art of 'Chennu Kunitha', the harvest dance found in Puttur, Coondapura and other villages of South Kanara give an insight into the cheapest mode of communication through entertainment.
Maragalu Kunitha
The folk dance of 'Maragalu Kunitha' consist of unique wooden legs which the artistes literally wear to gain unusual height. Wearing uniquely designed artificial legs the artiste easily captures the attention of the people through executing impressive but difficult feats.
Kolata
Kolata or stick dance is a kind of valour dance involving groups of people who indulge in bending, swaying and jumping activities to the tune of rhythmic clashing of sticks. With two sticks in hand, each dancer can strike in various patterns and rhythms. There is considerably more flexibility in the pattern of dancing so also singing. Members of Vokkaliga, Nayaka and Golla communities of Mysore, Mandya and Hassan districts and the Hallakki Gowda community of North Karnataka and the Kodavas of Coorg excel in Kolata. There is a rich spread of romantic and valour themes and references to contemporary, political and social issues in Kolata songs.
Alayi Hejje
'Alayi Hejje', a semi religious dance of the Muslim community of Karnataka, is a classic illustration of harmony between the two predominant communities of India, the Hindus and the Muslims. Jointly performed by Muslims and Hindus, the presentation in Alayi Hejje consists of performers dancing around a fire pit. It appears like a rope dance with 20 to 25 dancers holding identical ropes which are hung from bamboo poles. The dancers form a circle and dance around the pole artistically winding and unwinding the ropes like plaits. Alayi dance is an amalgamation of action and dexterous footwork, supported by appropriate devotional theme. Performed as part of 'Muharram' festival, Alayi Hejje provides a favourable forum for accomplishing communal harmony.
Simha Nrutya
The folk dance which is totally free from ritualistic and religious barriers is 'Simha Nrutya' (lion dance), the popular dance of the Honnavara taluk in the Uttara Kannada districts, usually performed by 'Yakshagana' artistes. The dance is in effect a charming imitation of a lion's movements. Hence the dancer wears a costume which closely resembles the lion. The costume is specially made of bark and yarn using natural dyes. The dancer wears a mask which is made up of cotton and is done to look like a lion's face. Two silver pangs are inserted in the mouth to create a visual impression of fangs. With the perfect portrayal of a lion's behaviour, movements, mode of hunting and preying, Simha Nrutya is not only entertaining but educative also.
Yakshagana
Yakshagana is believed to have a history of one thousand years. It is also believed to have represented a specific type of music of the 'yakshas'. Yaksha is the name of certain demi-gods attending on 'Kubera'- the god of wealth in the Hindu mythology. 'Gaana' means song. By combining the meaning, the term Yakshagana might mean the 'song of Yakshas'. Yakshagana has established its firm roots in the districts of Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannada, Dharwad, Mysore and Hassan. Based on its technique of presentation, Yakshagana has been broadly classified into 'Mudalapaya' (the custom of the east) and 'Paduvalapaya' (the custom of the west). Popularly known as 'Bayalata' or 'Aata', Mudalapaya is widely practiced in places like Tumkur, Bangalore, Kolar, Mandya, Mysore, Hassan, Chitradurga, Bellary, Dharwad, Bijapur, Gulbarga, Raichur, Bidar and Belgaum. While Yakshagana of North Karnataka has assumed varied forms like 'Sannata', 'Doddata', 'Krishna Parijatha' and 'Dasarata'. The form of Paduvalapaya' popular extensively in Uttara and Dakshina Kannad districts has been further divided into 'Thenku Tittu' (south) and 'Badagu Tittu' (north). Paduvalapaya is practiced in places like Karki, Keladi, Ikkeri, Sagar, Kolluru, Maranakatt, Sankuru, Coondapur, Kotesvara, Kota, Udupi, Dharmasthala, Mangalore, Brahmavara, Suratkal and Saligrama.
Puppetry
In Karnataka, the puppet theatre is said to have existed since ancient times. Puppetry in the state, is believed to have existed at the time of 'Kanakadasa' and 'Purandaradasa' and its roots are traced to the coastal tract of Karnataka. The health and family welfare department has been using puppetry shows for spreading messages like family planning, anti-dowry etc among the rural and semi urban places. The two prominent forms of puppetry of the state are (a) String puppets or Marionettes and (b) Leather or Shadow puppets.
Harikatha may be defined as a versatile and a composite art in which a single person indulges in the act of dramatization, consisting all the vital components of the theatre craft such as music, dance and dramatic presentation of the themes. Harikatha, is a solo recitation which is a combination of literature and lilting lyrics which reflects rich musical and literary material in its content. Harikatha is known in one form or the other with different names like Katha, Katha Keerthan, Shiva Katha, Katha Kalakshepam, Katha Prasangam keertan and sangam keertan and Sankeertan etc in the state.
The Harikatha artiste is accompanied by two or more members and wears a simple, casual dress. The principal performer is the chief singer narrator of the story and is called Dassa or Keertankar. He is accompanied by few artistes in background to give him vocal support. Musical instruments like the mridanga, the tabala, the violin, the harmonium and the cymbals are played by them while the Keertankar plays castanets (a two part chinking instrument made of wood). One of its important characteristics is that it enables the artiste to alter the message according to the mood of the audience and in the process of face to face communication, gauge the impact of the message on them. If the impact is adverse, he is free to change or disband the course through smooth switch-over to the old stories.
Rajputs are a community in northern India and Gujarat consisting of a number of clans such as the Gujjars. While present-day Rajasthan Rajasthan and Gujarat have been the main centers of the Rajputs, their clans have had a long and significant presence in other states. This page examines certain facts regarding the origins of the Rajputs, based on information gathered from inscriptions, copper-plates, contemporary Prashastis and texts.
Rajput Origins
The term Rajputra first emerged as a title used by some of the rulers referring to their royal ancestors. The term was first used at the time of Harshavardhana and later by the Sena king Vijayasena, a Chahamana Chauhan officer named Jojal and by certain descendants of the Shahi clan of Kashmir. The term was used in inscriptions for the crown princes of the Kalachuri dynasty and by dynasties in Orissa, Bengal and Assam.
Any speculations as to the origins of the Rajputs has to be presaged with the caveat that in general, no single origin-theory can be held to be authoritative. The traditional occupations of the Rajput are war and agriculture. Many scholars have pointed out that these areas lend themselves uniquely to the ingress of groups that were not formerly affiliated with those professions. The gradual accommodation of the new entrants into the social and family circle of the traditional community is the essential quid pro quo of the sanskritization that the aspirant community essays. This phenomenon of gradual inclusion has indubitably obtained in the case of the Rajputs.
The Agni-kunda Legend
The Agni-kunda legend is the best-known traditional account that deals with the origin of the rajput Rajputs. This account begins with the puranic legend wherein the traditional kshatriya Kshatriyas of the land were exterminated by Parashurama, an avatara of Vishnu. Later, sage Vasishta performed a great Yagya or fire-sacrifice, to seek from the gods a provision for the defense of righteousness on earth. In answer to his prayer, one or more youths arose from the very flames of the sacrificial fire, according to different versions of the legend.
Sometime during 16-17th century, the legend came to be applied to the Pratiharas , Chauhans , Solankis , and Paramaras , Rahevars clans. The Gurjara-Pratiharas established the first royal Rajput kingdom in Marwar in southwestern Rajasthan in the 6th century 6th century, the Chauhans at Ajmer in central Rajasthan, the Solankis in Gujarat , and the Paramaras at Mount Abu. Evolution of the legendA large number of inscriptions and texts have come to light since the mid-19th century 19th century that allow us to trace the evolution of this legend in detail.
The Agnikunda story is first found in the Nava-sahasanka-charita by Padmagupta, a fictional romance where the hero is identifiable as Sindhuraja, the patron of the author Padmagupta. This work mentions that the progenitor of the Paramaras was created from fire by sage Vashishtha. During the period of decline of the Paramaras of Dhar, the story finds mention in several royal inscriptions. Later, the story is expanded to include two or three other Rajput clans. Eventually, some scholars proposed that all of the Rajputs were created from the Agnikunda.
Early Paramara Chronology
949 AD: First known Paramara copperplate Harsola copperplate. Mentions Paramara Siyaka as a feudatory of Rashtrakuta Akalavarsha. It mentions the Paramaras as being of the same clan ' as the Rashtrakutas.
975, 986 AD: Vakpati Munja assumes Rashtrakuta name Amoghavarsha and titles Srivallabha and Prathvivallabha, indicating that he regarded himself as being a succesor of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta.
Thus, there is no mention of the Agnikunda legend in the early records; the Paramaras appear as a branch of Rashtrakutas, as proposed by D.C. Ganguli.
Chronology:
Gradual Evolution of the Myth
Sri Lanka also known as Simhala and Ceylon is familiar to Indians as the abode of Ravana who was killed by Sri Rama in the Tretha Yuga. Its nearness to South India had practically made it a part of the Peninsula politically and culturally for the past two thousand years and more. Though now a days we feel as if it is far away, in the ancient period, our kings treated Sri Lanka as a next - door neighbour and waged wars frequently.
Buddhism:
Karnataka's contact with Sri Lanka is more than two thousand years old. Karnataka had attained great fame in the Buddhist world for its patronage to Buddha's religion as early as the third century B.C, as evidenced by the statement that Ashoka had sent a Buddhist monk Rakkhita to Banavasi in Karnataka for the propagation of Buddhism. Mahavamsha, a great Buddhist work furnishes the other important connection. A huge Buddhist Stupa was built in Ceylon and a grand inaugural function was arranged, for which invitations were sent to all parts of the Buddhist world. One of the invitees was Chandra Gupta from Karnataka (Banavasi). He accepted the invitation and went to Sri Lanka with 80,000 Buddhist monks. The Sri Lankans took care of the monks from Karnataka and showed them great respect. This happened more than two thousand years ago.
Invasion:
Chalukya Pulakesi II's grandson Vinayaditya invaded Ceylon in 690 AD and defeated King Manavarman who agreed to pay tribute to the Chalukyas. Sometime later, Rastrakuta Govinda III (793 - 814 AD) who was a great warrior had practically become the master of South India. Agrabodhi, the King of Ceylon feared that Govinda III would invade Sri Lanka and voluntarily surrendered to him through a novel method. He sent his own statue and also that of his Minister to Rastrakuta Govinda as a symbol of submission. The next Rastrakuta King Krishna, suffered an initial defeat, but was able to defeat the Ceylonese King Mahendra IV. The latter met Krishna and bowed down to his feet as a mark of submission. It is said that Mahendra fled from his Capital and Karnataka soldiers occupied parts of Sri Lanka. These victories of Karnataka encouraged many Karnataka soldiers and heroes to make Ceylon as their homeland and they continued to stay there for generations, and became Ceylonese themselves.
Internal rivalry:
Vikramaditya VI (1076 - 1126 AD), the great Chalukya King of the Kalyana branch, invaded Sri Lanka during the reign of Jayabahu. He sent choice gifts to Vikramaditya VI as a mark of friendship and kept many heroes of Karnataka as mercenaries. There developed a rivalry between the two Ceylonese kings, and Gajabahu, who was his cousin, requested the soldiers from Karnataka to help him against his rival Parakramabahu and paid them rich remuneration. Thus the brave soldiers of Karnataka began to play an important role in Sri Lankan politics. During this period, Karnataka imported large quantities of precious stones, pearls and emeralds from that island. The Sri Lanka kings became closer to Karnataka and began to use names and titles like Trailokyamalla and Tribhuvanamalla, which were quite popular in Karnataka. The Goa Kadamba ruler Shasthadeva (1005 – 1050 AD) was a great hero of many naval battles. In one such battle, he went to Ceylon and extracted tribute from the Ceylonese king.
Hoysalas:
The Hoysalas also tried their luck against Ceylon and obtained success. A Hoysala naval commander by name Gopayya went to Ceylon by a sea route and in a naval battle killed a Chief Parakramabahu of Ceylon. Because of this victory, he became famous as “Samudra Gopayya” in the land of the Hoysalas. Later the Hoysalas suffered a defeat. The Ceylonese soldiers cut off the trunk of the Hoysala elephant when it tried to destroy the Sri Lankan soldiers. A matrimonial alliance was made. A Sri Lankan prince by name Manabharana married a Hoysala princess.
With the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire, contacts between Karnataka and Sri Lanka became more prolific. King Harihara II's brother Yuvaraja Virupanna invaded Sri Lanka, defeated its king and established a pillar of victory there. Actually, he killed the Sri Lankan King Vijayabahu ruling at Jaffna. With this, many Karnataka soldiers, their families and merchants settled down in the Jaffna area. Hence some contemporary visitors refer to Jaffna as a city of Karnataka. Thus by 1385 AD, Jaffna area was well known as a Karnata land.
Marital connections:
Vijayanagara King Devaraya II invaded Ceylon again in 1460 AD and won a victory. The Sri Lankan King gave his daughter Simhaladevi in marriage to Devaraya II. Actually, Lakkanna Dandanayaka was the real hero of this battle. After Lakkanna's return to Hampi, the Sri Lankan King became independent and they were again defeated. The Sri Lankan kings continued to accept the suzerainty of Krishnadevaraya, Achyutaraya and Sadashivaraya. A Vijayanagara prince by name Vithala was appointed as the Viceroy of Sri Lanka.
Commerce:
More than political relations, the Vijayanagara kings had a commercial interest in Sri Lanka. This is confirmed by the discovery of a large number of Vijayanagara gold coins in different parts of Sri Lanka. Vijayanagara art made some impact on Sri Lankan architecture and sculpture. Goods which reached Sri Lanka from Europe and other countries were purchased by Vijayanagara merchants. With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, contacts between Sri Lanka and Karnataka began to decline because of the development of the Portuguese power in Ceylon. Thus Karnataka from very early times had political, religious and commercial contacts with Sri Lanka. Now it is limited to tourism only.
what is the origin of Vijayanagar Rulers , Major claims are kannadigas and Telugu, Let us see the facts.
The Vijaynagara kingdom was established by Harihara and Bukka in 1336 in Anegundi in koppal district of Karnataka. Later the capital was shifted to Hampi. The dispute has been on the origin of these two people. Let us what are the claims
Telugu Origin
King Prataparudra and were made captive after the fall of Warangal. According to another historian who based his research on evidence culled from inscriptions such as Gozalavidu record, "the founders of Vijayanagara were at first in the service of the last Kakatiya king Prataparudra of Warangal, and that when that monarch was defeated by Muhammad bin Tughluq and taken prisoner, they fled to Kampili and took refuge in the court of Kampilideva” . On the outbreak of a rebellion in Kampili the brothers were sent by Tughlaq with an army to Kampili to reconquer it from the rebels and rule the province as his deputies. They successfully accomplished the task but under the influence of Vidyaranya they renounced Islam, and threw in their lot with the Musunuri Nayaks who had just then succeeded, under the leadership of Kaapaya, in expelling the Muslims and re-establish the national independence. Harihara and Bukka then reverted to their ancient faith and having declared independence, assumed the leadership of the Hindus of Kampili in their fight against the Muslims.
he Hoysala service a decade before their arrival at Kampili (in modern Bellary district).
Hallur is an archaeological site located in the Haveri district (which was carved out of Dharwad district), in the Indian state of Karnataka. Hallur, South India's earliest Iron Age site, lies in a semi-arid region with scrub vegetation, located on the banks of the river Tungabhadra. The site is a low mound about 6.4 m high.The site was first discovered by Nagaraja Rao in 1962, and excavated in 1965.
Archaeobotanical findings at Hallur indicated that finger millet, kodo millet, rice, black gram, green gram and hyacinth beans were cultivated here. Ornaments made of carnelian, ceramic, gold and antler were also found. Apart from the bones of the horse; bones of cattle, sheep, goat and dog were found.
The housing structures found here consisted of circular floors, composed of schist chips and mud pounded hard to make a hard surface. The walls made of bamboo and mud, provided support to a conical thatched roof.One of the houses was found to have a circular fireplace containing ash and charcoal. The region below the floors was a burial chamber consisting of urns used for child burials. Chalcolithic blade tools of black quartzite, small copper axes and fish hooks are also found. The transition to the Iron Age period is marked by the presence of megaliths and iron implements.
Simple dish Idly has been in controversy regarding the origin.
Idly in literature
‘iddalige’, first mentioned in a Kannada work Vaddaradhane of Sivakotyacharya in 920 AD. The Sanskrit Manasollasa of 1130 AD has ‘iddarika’. Tamil apparently only first mentions ‘itali’ in the 17th century.
Gujarati origin
Gujarat have IDADA which is steamed dhokla made from same ingredients as Idly.Namely Urad dhaal and Rice which are fermented overnight and next day steamed.Gujarathis claim Idaly is a dish which came to south from Gujarat during 10/12th century AD.when lot of silk weavers from saurashtra came to south via Maharashtra.The dukkia is first mentioned in AD 1068 in Gujurathi Jain literature, and dhokla appears in AD 1520 in the Varanaka Samuchaya. Besan flour is fermented overnight with curd, and steamed in slabs which are then cut into pieces and dressed with fresh coriander leaves, fried mustard seeds and coconut shreds. A coarser version is khaman and both are popular breakfast and snack foods in Gujurat. But we have to note that Gujart was ruled by chalukyas and Rastrakutas for many centuries before that and Idada may be from iddalige. Since we dont find references to that before that.
Indonesia origin
Acharya notes:the use of rice grits along with urad dhal,the long fermentation of the mix, and the steaming of the batter to fluffiness. Only after 1250 AD are there references to what seem to be idlis as we know them. Achaya’s contention is that this absence from the historical record could mean that idlis are an imported concept — perhaps from Indonesia which has a long tradition of fermented products, like tempeh (fermented soy cakes), kecap (from where we get ketchup) or something called kedli, which Achaya says, is like an idli. This is plausible enough given the many links between Southeast Asia and South India, through rulers and traders. Acharyra also adds many legendary stories ,but there is no basis for them.
Heuan tsang says no steaming vessels south india in seventh century.But steaming vessels are not required for steaming dishes , steam can be produced using cloth over the vessel, still this method is used in south India.
Karnataka origin
Vaddaradhane by Shivakoti Acarya ( Rashtrakoota times)of the 10th century names Iddalige ( Idli ), Holige (Poli) and Savige ( Vermicelli). The 12th century encyclopedia Manasollaasa of Somashekhara Ballala III (Kalyani Chalukya) is a veritable treasure house of recipes and cooking styles. Lets not forget that these were empires with catholic tastes and wide trading hinterlands.
Tulu and kannada dishes
Many old words appearing in the Vaddaradhane,but extint now in modern Kannada, are existing still in Tulu even now.Like "muttukadi","baikam"(Baikampadi) etc. Hale(Old) Kannada and Tulu shared many words. They also should have shared rice dishes like iddli(<-iddalige). We are handicapped by the absence of Tulu texts dating back to 10th C. AD or older ones.Compare this with the numerous leaf based steam cooked Tulu rice dishes similar to iddli in technology.However it is difficult to trace the antiquity of these leaf-wraped precursors of iddlis. Since,leafy vessels are more primitive designs than the more modern iddli cooking vessels, Tulu disheslike moode,gunda,kotte etc., can be said to be actual ancestors of the modern iddlis.
The first appearance of the term in the literature need not mean the origin of the dish around that time, so the origin of this delicious dish has to be karnataka. So Idli is defintely a Karnataka dish.
Muscial Rocks
Kupgal Site
The site is situated in the Bellary district of mid-eastern Karnataka, approximately 5 km north-east of the town of Bellary. Archaeological sites in this area appear in the literature under different names, but the names of Sanganakallu and Kupgal, two local villages, occur commonly. Here, neolithic remains are found concentrated on the tops and slopes of an outcrop of granitic hills while remains of the megalithic (Iron Age) and Early Historic, and subsequent periods are found predominantly in surrounding plains.
Artforms
The art work besides showing plants , Bow and arrow also show a man gripping woman by Hair.Of the many sites here, the largest is located on the biggest and northernmost of the granitic hills. It was called Peacock Hill by the British during the colonial period and is referred in early kannada literature. Local Kannadigas, generally call the hill Hiregudda, which simply means ‘Big Hill’ in the local Kannada language. Most archaeological literature, however, refers to the hill as Kupgal hill, after a neighbouring village (though it must be noted that the nearest village is Sirivaram).
Wiki
The Badagas(Kannada:ಬಡಗ ಜನರು) are an indigenous people inhabiting the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu, southern India.The term 'Badagu' in old Kannada means 'North',so 'Badaga' should mean 'Northener'.
They form the largest indigenous community in the Nilgiri region, with a population of approximately 150,000 encompassing some 370-odd villages and smaller settlements. They are registered as a Backward Caste, (now referred to as other backward caste(OBC) caste). Their aspirations to be recognized as a tribe, rather than a caste, is complicated by their historical and contemporary social relations with other Nilgiri peoples, from whom they have asserted some differences and even a social precedence.
For example, the Badagas have traditionally hired musicians from other Nilgiri groups (such as the Kota and Irula) to play at their social functions, which is symbolic of submission and control in that region. However, they are also known to have paid tribute in grain to other groups, such as the Todas. In general, neither stereotype of caste or tribe can be readily applied. They are most likely Dravidian by descent and they are by religion Hindus of the Saiva sect. Research has indicated they migrated to the Nilgiris from the Mysore region, sometime around 1600 after the break-up of the kingdom of Vijayanagara. They are an agricultural people and far the most numerous and wealthy of the hill tribes. Many have relocated to towns and cities of the region, and earn income from urban-style employment. Their language is Badaga, a dialect of Kannada. This is the correct representation of Badaga people ,let us see why there is confusion.
Natives of the Nilgiris
Philology states that in the beginning languages existed without scripts and only later scripts were developed. Hence this seems to be a justification that the badagas were completely an indegenous people to due to the absence in their script, but an ancient indegenous group would have a higher population or would have been completely extinct which questions the validity of this theory.
The European Connection
Badaga ethnic group from Central/East Europe for survival had to accept the local language after migration to southern India and then to the Nilgiri Hills (the nilgiris then belonged to the Vijayanagara Empire), hence the dialect of Kannada. The badagas hence adopted the language for verbal communication and did not accept the Script as it was Foreign to them. The date of the second migration from present Karnataka is probably said to be around 1500 AD - 1600 AD. But this theory is put up to convert badagas to Christianity. The same theory has been put forward in neibhouring kodagu to successful effect in conversion. To somehow show they are closer to European to spread Christianity.
Genomic studies
Genomic Studies i.e. a Y-chromosome DNA marker test on the badagas have resulted in the badagas belonging to the broader R1a and specifically R1a1 Haplogroup. A good percentage of people in Central Europe,East Europe,Scandinavia and the people of Punjab also belong to this R1a1 Haplogroup. Hence this has been suggestive of the fact that the badagas are of an Eurasian origin.
The above statement of "origin" is further diluted based on the examination of R1a1 in South Indian tribals and Dravidian population groups Saha et al. (2005) questioned the concept of its Indo-Iranian origin. Sengupta et al. (2005) claim R1a's diverse presence including even Indian tribal and lower castes (the so-called untouchables) and populations not part of the caste system. From the diversity and distinctiveness of microsatellite Y-STR variation they conclude that there must have been an independent R1a1 population in India dating back to a much earlier expansion than the Indo-Aryan migration. The other Ethnic group from southern India which belongs to the R1a1 haplogroup are the Kodava whose customs and cultural aspects for centuries have been said to be related to the Badagas.
Proto Kannada-Tamil origin
Some tamil scholars say they split from Proto-Kannada-Tamil. But this is without any basis and is linguistic chuvanism of the Tamils. This theory is mainly put forward to keep the beautiful and Nilgiris and ooty within Tamil nadu. With this theory they also forced Badagas to use Incompatible Tamil Script.
Conclusion
The Badagas are very much a part of the Gowdas (Land Lords in Karnataka). Many also follow Lingayat tradition. It remained as a dialect because of the isolation in the hills. The language is also believed to be the older form of Kannada (Hale Kannada). Though the practices may be unique, the culture is very much the same as the Kannadigas. This uniqueness is by shedding out old practices and adopting new ones to keep the bond among members of the community and the other tribes like Todas, Kurumbas etc.
Any Lay kannada person can understand Badaga speaking, It has retained the old charms and also some of the cultural practices. All the words in Badaga has kannada origin, they have borrowed some from neibhouring Toda, Korta , Kuruba(all Kannada tribes) and Irula (Malayalam tribe). Recently they have been using more of Tamil, because of the use of tamil script and tamil administration.
Origin and meaning of the word Tulu has been disputed in literary circles since pre-Independance days. Dr. Palthadi Ramakrishna Achar(1999) has compiled the available historical information on the word ‘Tulu’ in his book ‘TuLu naaDu- nuDi’. Most of the appraisals, as remarked by Dr Achar, have been made considering Tulu as a character of the territory or the people rather than the language.
Nandavara is a settlement on the bank of the Netravati River, in Bantwal taluka, at Dakshina Kannada, Karnataka, India. It is around 25 km from Mangalore.
Nandavara once had royal associations: there were many palaces and temples in the area. None, nor the fort built by the kings, survive today. Nandavar was a very ancient and renowned place. For centuries it was also a historical center. Nandavara was the capital of the Nanda Dynasty, which ruled this region for several centuries. The name Nandavara is derived from a combination of two words, nanda and pura. The Nanda kings established their kingdom on the bank of the Netravati River, and built a fort and a palace. The place came to be known as Nandapura, which in course of time became well known by the present name of Nandavara.
Sites of historical significance that exist today include the Sri Veerabhadra shrine, the Shri Vinayaka Shankaranarayana Durgamba temple and the Sri Veera Maruti temple. The neglected Sri Siddhi Vinayaka Shankarnarayana Durgamba temple has been renovated and restored, and it equipped with facilities for social welfare activities.
Let us see who are these Nandas or they connected with Famous Nanda Dynasty of North?
Local Legend
Bangarasa who exterminated the Nanda dynasty and commenced his rule in Nandavar in 1417 A.D., built a tall mud fort around his palace, and erected therein a shrine dedicated to Veerabhadra. But neither Bangarasa nor his successors could rule the kingdom in peace and tranquillity. There used to be frequent skirmishes and battles between him and the neighboring Chowta king and Domba Heggade of Vittal. Due to the repeated murders, loot and decoity indulged in by the aliens and enemies alike, there commenced and prevailed in Nandavar strife and anarchy. Nandavar became a prey to the Mohammedan Aggression.
Origin
First King of Ganga Dynasty started in Karnataka when Jain Acharya Simhanandi inspired his two disciples Daddigh and Madhav to establish their rule, which they did by constituting the territory of Gangawadi with Kolar as their capital. Madhav Kongunivarma I was the first crowned king of this dynasty, who ruled for a long period during 189-250 AD. So the question of Gangas originating in north and coming to south is irrelavant. They actually moved south(3rd to 10th century ) to North(11th to 15th century) to establish Eastern Ganga Dynasty. The Eastern Ganga dynasty established with decline of western ganga dynasty. They built temples in orissa on similar lines as in Karnataka. In the opinion of Dr. N. K. Sahu, both the western and eastern Ganga dynasty belong to one and the same dynasty.
Mahisa(kannada) Race
Mr. Dubey has identified the Tumbura-race with Mahisa, Thumbra being mentioned in Puranas as Ganga. Mahisa race as we know is from only one place , that is mysore from ashokan times . The first king of this Ganga dynasty Anantavarma belonged to the Mahisa race as per Puranas. Kudlur grant of Marasimha and the Santara inscription on the Huncha stone says Simhanandi gave them kingdom. The last mentioned record indeed refers to him as "the archariya who made the Ganga kingdom." :"Ganga-rajyaman madida Simhanandy acharyya." which shows they are of kannada decent or Mahisa race. The Western Ganga rule was a period of brisk literary activity in Kannada, which shows that they are kannada origin.
Eastern Ganga
Eastern Ganga capital is kalinganagara, which is often leading to misunderstanding it is in kalinga(orissa), but it is actually in Andhra pradesh. The Eastern Ganga dynasty came to prominence after 10th century. They maintained relations with cholas( part of chalukyas) shows that they are of same as western Gangas. The Karnata race having independent rulers in various places of India in the previous thousand years has established a kingdom in orissa and Andhra. With Chalukya's in West and South, senas in Bengal , srilanka, Nepal. The karnatas ruled whole of India. Showing eastern Gangas belong to fisherman decent of orissa is not correct. Gangas continued the tradition of building temples in orissa also with Sun temple of Konark , Lord Jagannath temple and various other temples. Many of the common Orissan surnames, such as ‘Dalai’ and ‘Senapati’, originated in Ganga times. Gangas also took the mahisasura mardini or Durga worship to orissa from karnataka.
Puranas
Origin of Gangas is mainly due to confusion from Puranas. Whose dating has always been in question. Puranas show 80kings ruling 1600years. Also the opposition of puranas to Jain territories mainly in karnataka means , karnataka decent does not get due respect. There is also mention of Ganga Vamsa apart from Ganga dynasty and also Mahisa race.
Historical sources
Historical sources are not very clear from sanskrit inscriptions and plates give no continous evidence of any known decent except they are Ganga rulers. Historical records are in sanskrit with mix of southern and northern script , which shows that the western and eastern ganga's are same.
External sources
External sources like arab show that the eastern ganga land was essentially agararian and army infantry. So the question of gangas moving from karnataka to orissa is not a issue. Also the southeast asian sources like indonesia tell about karnataka traders operating from eastern shores.
So the eastern and western Ganga are all same. Ganga origin is in Mysore( Karnataka). when the primacy of Ganga rule came to end in karnataka came to end around 10th century, they moved north to andhra and Orissa to establish rule. They constructed many famous temples and also increased trade there.
The Rashtrakuta Dynasty was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of southern, central and northern India between the sixth and the thirteenth centuries. During this period they ruled as several closely related, but individual clans. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a seventh century copper plate grant that mentions their rule from Manpur in the Malwa region of modern Madhya Pradesh. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur which is modern Elichpur in Maharashtra and the rulers of Kannauj.
The clan that ruled from Elichpur was a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas and during the rule of Dantidurga, it overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II and went on to build an impressive empire with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753. Period between the eight and the tenth centuries, saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains, each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the Ganga River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south.
During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit. Amoghavarsha I was the most famous king of this dynasty and wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. The finest examples of which are seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora and the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Maharashtra as well as in the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The origin of Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic. These issues pertain to the origins of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of Emperor Ashoka in the second century BCE, and the connection between the several Rashtrakuta dynasties that ruled small kingdoms in northern and central India and the Deccan between the sixth and seventh centuries. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (present day Malkhed in the Gulbarga district, Karnataka state), who ruled between the eighth and tenth centuries has also been debated
Punjab origin
The appearance of the terms Rathika, Ristika (Rashtrika) or Lathika in conjunction with the
terms Kambhoja and Gandhara in some Ashokan inscriptions of 2nd century BCE from Mansera and Shahbazgarhi in North Western Frontier Province (present day Pakisthan), Girnar (Saurashtra) and Dhavali (Kalinga) and the use of the epithet "Ratta" in many later inscriptions has prompted a claim that the earliest Rashtrakutas were descendants of the Arattas, natives of the Punjab region from the time of Mahabharata who later migrated south and set up kingdoms there, while another theory points more generally to north western regions of India. Based on this theory, the Arattas may have become natives of the Deccan having arrived there during the early centuries of the first millennium. But this is a far fetched theory having no proof.
Maharastra origin
Term Rishtika used together with Petenika in the Ashokan inscriptions implied they were hereditary ruling clans from modern Maharashtra region and the term "Ratta" implied Maharatta ruling families from modern Maharashtra region. But this has been rejected on the basis that from ancient books such as Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha in Pali language it is known the term Maharatta and not Rashtrika has been used to signify hereditary ruling clans from modern Maharashtra region and the terms Rashtrika and Petenika appear to be two different displaced ruling tribes.
Marathi or Telugu origin
The argument that the Rashtrakutas were either Marathi speaking Marathas or Telugu speaking Reddies in origin has been rejected. Reddy's in that time period had not come into martial prominence even in the Telugu speaking regions of Andhra, being largely an agrarian soceity of cultivators who only much later (in the 14th century - 15th century) came to control
regions in the Krishna - Rajamundry districts. The Rashtrakuta period did not produce any Marathi inscriptions or literature (with the exception of a 981 CE Shravanabelagola inscription which some historians argue was inscribed later). Hence Marathi as the language of the Rashtrakutas, it is claimed, is not an acceptable argument
Rajputs
The Rashtrakutas emerged before the term "Rajput" came to be used as a community. The emergence of Rajputs in Rajasthan and Gujarat coincides with the arrival of the Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas in the region. So it is just a coincidence
kannadiga origin
Gangas
Kuvalala (kolar) ,Talakad, Kalinganagara, Cuttack
Vijaynagara
Hampi,Penukonda ,chandragiri, vellore
Tipu Sultan
Srirangapatna
Chalukyas
Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal, Vatapi, Kalyana, Vengi, Tardavadi,
Hoysala
Belur, Dwarasamudra(Helebid)
Bahmani
Bidar
Bijapur Sultanate
Bijapur
Kadamba
Banvasi - dakshin kashi, Khanapur , Gopakapattana
satavahanas
Paithan
Chutus
Banavasi (Vaijayanti)
Rastrakuta
Malkhed, ManyaKheta, LattalUru, Berar
wodyars
Mysore
Alupa
Mangalore Barakura
Kalachuri
Dahala, Mangalavada, Tripuri (Tewar), Gorakhpur, Ratnapur ,Rajpur(eastern Gujarat)
Nayakas
Chitradurga, Keladi
Sena
Nabadip
satraps
Ujjain
Seuna
DevaGiri, Shrinagara, Chandradityapura,
Solanki (chalukya)
Jodhpur,Anhilvad pattan
Rathore (Rastrakuta)
Jodhpur,Bikaner, Ratlam
Gahadvala
Kannauj, Varanasi
Malla Dynasty
Lalitpur, Kantipur,Bhaktpur,Pradamnapur, Bishnupur, Simroangarch
Germans can be grumpy, unpleasant people—and it's not because of post-Nazi guilt or a diet filled with bratwurst, says one American researcher. It's because of their vowels. Hope College psychology professor David Myers says saying a vowel with an umlaut forces a speaker to turn down his mouth in a frown, and may induce the sadness associated with the facial expression. Myers added that the English sounds of "e" and "ah" naturally create smile-like expressions and may induce happiness.
Being polite and respectful is much easier on the mouth in Kannada. For every verb spoken, you are spared one syllable or more, compared to the other tongues. And in addition, employing the respectful plural takes the same effort needed for the casual singular: Same price, more value.
Now consider this.
In (colloquial) Kannada:
| Singular | Respectful (Plural) | |||
| Go | hogu | 2 syllables | hogi | 2 syllables |
| Do: | madu | ,, | madi | ,, |
| See: | nodu | ,, | nodri | ,, |
| Put: | haku | ,, | hakri | ,, |
| Singular | Respectful (Plural) | |||
| Do: | sei | 1 syllable | seyyunga | 3 syllables |
| See: | paru | 2 | parunga | 3 |
| Put: | podu | 2 | podunga | 3 |
| Singular | Respectful (Plural) | |||
| Go: | ja | 1 syllable | ja'iye | 3 syllables |
| Do: | kar | 1 | keejiye | 3 |
| See: | dekh | 1 | dekhiye | 3 |
| Singular | Respectful (Plural) | |||
| Go: | vellu | 2 syllables | vellandi | 3 syllables |
| Do: | chei | 2 | cheyyandi | 3 |
| See: | choodu | 2 | choodandi | 3 |
Kittur Rani Chennamma(1778 - 1829)
Chennamma(1778 - 1829) was born in a Kakati,almost 56 years earlier than Rani Laxmi Bai, in a small village north of Belgaum in Karnataka. She was married to Raja Mallasurja. With this marriage she had only one son who died in 1824. She adopted Shivalingappa and made him heir to the throne. The British East India Company did not accept this and ordered expulsion of Shivalingappa with the help of their policy Doctrine of lapse.The Rani defied the order. A great battle ensued. The Rani fought the British with great courage and skill. She could not, however, hold out for long. She was taken captive and lodged in Bailhongal Fort where she died on 21-02-1829.
Chennamma was the first lady who fought against british for their unwanted interference and tax collection(Kappa).Chennamma was a legendary queen who fought the British army from her base in the small kingdom of Kittur in the Belgaum district of Karnataka State, India. She was ably aided in her struggle by her Lieutenant Sangolli Rayanna.
Rani Abbakka
ABBAKKA RANI : THE UNSUNG WARRIOR QUEEN
"Abbakka rode the horse stately and worked deep into the night dispensing justice. She is the last known person to have Agnivana (fire arrow)."
Rani Abbakka, though a Queen of a little known small princely state, Ullal, was magnetic woman of indomitable courage and patriotism. While Rani Jhansi has become a symbol of courage, Abbakka, nearly 300 years her predecessor, has been largely forgotten by history. Her furious wars with Portuguese are not well recorded. But whatever is available speaks of a luminous personality of awesome valour and bravery.
Sources, such as archival records, travelogues of several Portuguese travelers and historical analysis confirm that there were three Abbakkas: mother and two daughters, who fought against the Portuguese Army between 1530 and 1599.
Though it is the second daughter who was the most courageous, the folklore treats all three Abbakkas as one great Queen and a brilliant personality Abbakka Mahadevi or Rani Abbakka. In this article also she is being treated as a single character - Abbakka Rani.
Ullal fort, the capital of Abbakka's kingdom, is located just a few kilometers away from the city of Mangalore, on the shores of the Arabian Sea. It is a historical as well as a pilgrim spot because of the beautiful Shiva Temple built by the Queen and a unique natural rock, called the Rudra Rock. The rock appears to change colours every second, as the sweater splashes on it.
According to local legends. Abbakka was an extraordinary child and as she grew up showed signs of being a visionary. there was no equal to her in military science and warfare, mainly in archery and sword fighting. Her father encouraged her in this and after she was well versed in all areas, she was married to a neighbouring local king of Bangher. The marriage did no last long with Abbakka breaking the ties by returning the jewels given by his to her. The husband thus nurtured revenge against Abbakka and later on joined the Portuguese in a treaty, to fight Abbakka.
The Portuguese had made several attempts to capture Ullal, strategically placed. But Abbakka had repulsed each of their attack with sheer courage and ingenuity. The queen's story is retold from generation to generation through folk songs and yakshagana, the popular folk theatre, In bootaradhana, (which literally means appeasing the possessed, a local ritual dance) the personal in trance narrates the great deeds of Abbakka Mahadevi. Abbakka, dark and good looking, always dressed in simple clothes like a common village woman. She rode the horse stately and worked deep into the night dispensing justice.
According to the folklore, Abbakka is the last known person to have the Agnivana (fire-arrow) in her fight against the Portuguese. Though Abbakka was a Jain by faith her administration was well represented by Hindus and Muslims. Her army too consisted of people from all sects and caste including Moggaveeras, a fisher folk community. The first attack by the Portuguese in south Kanara coast was in 1525, when they destroyed the Mangalore port. Rani Abbakka was alerted by the incident and started preparing herself to protect her kingdom. In 1555, the Portuguese sent Admiral Don Alvaro da Silvereira against the Queen of Ullal Abbakka Devi Chowta who had refused to pay them the tribute. She fought with courage and intelligence and pushed them back.
In 1558 the Portuguese Army perpetrated another wanton cruelty on Mangalore, putting to death a number of men and women, both young and old, plundering a temple, burning ships and finally setting the city itself on fire.
Again, in 1567, the Portuguese army attacked Ullal, showering death and destruction. The great Queen Abbakka Devi Chowta (Bucadevi I) resisted it.
The same year one general Joao Peixoto was sent by the Portuguese Viceroy Antony Norohna with a fleet of soldiers. He captured the city of Ullal and also entered the royal court. However the Queen escaped and took asylum in a mosque. The same night, she counter-attacked the Portuguese army, with a help of 200 of her soldiers and killed General Peixoto and 70 Portuguese soldiers.
The invaders were forced to flee to their ships in disgrace. The Portuguese soldiers who remained in Ullal were dead drunk, in over confidence and were dancing. Taking advantage of this opportunity, about 500 Muslim supporters of Abbakka Rani attacked the Portuguese and killed Admiral Mascarenhas along with the help six thousand Muslim soldiers in 1568, and the foreign army had to leave the Mangalore fort.
In 1569, the Portuguese Army not only regained the Mangalore Fort but also captured Kundapur (Basrur). Abbakka Rani was a source of threat to the Portuguese. They won the confidence of Abbakka's estranged husband, kind of Bangher and started attacking Ulla. Abbakka Rani fought vigorously.
She formed an alliance in 1570 with Bijapur Sultan Ahmed Nagar and the Zanmorine of Calicut, who where also opposing the Portuguese. Kutty Pokar Markar, a general of the Zamorine fought on behalf of Abbakka and destroyed the Portuguese fort at Mangalore but while returning he was killed by the Portuguese.
Abbakka lost the war as her husband assisted the Portuguese by revealing to them her strategies of warfare, which he was familiar with. She was arrested and jailed. However, the warrior that she was, she was, she revolted in the prison and died as a soldier - fighting.
Though Abbakka has been admired and worshipped in the local folk forms, it is very recently there there have been efforts to honour her memory.
Onake Obavva (18th Century)
Onake Obavva was a woman who fought the forces of Hyder Ali single handedly with a masse (Onake) in the small kingdom of Chitradurga in the Chitradurga district of Karnataka State, India. She was the wife of a guard of the watch tower in the rocky fort of Chitradurga.
During the reign of Madakari Nayaka, the city of Chitradurga was besieged by the troops of Hyder Ali. A chance sighting of a woman entering the Chitradurga fort through a crack hole in the rocks led to a clever plan by Hyder Ali to send his soldiers through the crack hole. The defence guard on duty of the port near that crack hole had just gone home as usual asking his wife to guard till he is back from his lunch. The wife of that guard, Obavva while in her temporary seat, noticed the soldiers emerging out of this crack, Obavva was not perturbed. As she was carrying with her, the Onake (a wooden long club meant for pounding paddy grains) she killed and quietly moved the dead, so that hundreds of them entered and fell, without raising any suspicion. The guard, Obavva's husband, upon his return from his lunch was shocked to see Obavva standing with a blood stained Onake and hundreds of dead bodies of the enemy fleet around her. Though her sincere brave attempt saved the fort this time, Madakari could not resist the attack of 1779 by Hyder Ali. The fort of Chitradurga was lost to Hyder Ali once for all.
Keladi Chennamma
Keladi Chennamma (17th century) was a queen of Keladi Nayaka dynasty who fought the Mughal Army of Aurangzeb from her base in the kingdom of Keladi in the Shimoga district of Karnataka State, India. She gave shelter to the son of Shivaji Maharaj infuriating the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. In the battle that ensued she successfully defended her territory from the siege. Her rule lasted for 25 years and Keladi kingdom was probably the last to lose autonomy to Mysore rulers and subsequently to British.
Aurangzeb had conquered many kingdoms in North India and had turned his eyes towards the South. His thirst for expansion was not yet quenched and his vast, powerful army attacked this small state. The excuse had been that the Queen had given shelter to the son of Maharaja Shivaji.
But Chennamma was not afraid. Nor did she feel sorry. She did not ask for pardon. She faced the attack like a heroic woman. When the enemies themselves withdrew their attack and begged for a treaty, she was quite generous.
She had the complexion of a pearl, with bright eyes and a broad forehead. A long nose and curly hair adorned a face of royal dignity. The beautiful Queen was full of good qualities too. And she had the ability to kill her enemies in the battles, like Durga (the goddess of power). Beauty, valour, piety and generosity all blended in this great Queen.
Other woman who have given insurmountable service to Kannada art, literature, religion, culture and political administration.
Queen Naganika, wife of king Satakarni of Satavahana dynasty, is perhaps the earliest person in history of India whose name has been associated with the king on the coins. The inscription at Nanaghat in western India records the donation made by the Satavahanaking Sri Satakarni and his queen Naganika at the celebration of different sacrifices (30B.C.). The donations were in coins (Karsapanas). The Satavahanas had trade relationwith the Roman Empire. The Roman empire supplied the base metals for the native currency. The periplus mentions the importation of silver. One inscription from Junnar records the guild of barriers. This is the unique evidence from Junnar. It was likely that king Satakarni melted down the Roman silver coins at Junnar and coined his Karsapanas. Silver coins of Satakarni-I and Naganika from Junnar have proved that they were issued on the occasion of Asvamedha sacrifice.
The Satavahana kings generally used the name of their mothers as their initials. Kochiputra Satakarni, Kosikiputra Satakarni, Gotamiputra Satakarni, Vasisthiputra Satakarni, pulimei. These are some of the names of Satavahana kings that we find both in inscriptions and coins. ‘Kochi’, Kosiki, ‘Gotami’, ‘Vasisthi’ these king mothers were certainly the crowned queens of the dynasty. This evidence provides sufficient strength to the fact that the queens played pivotal role in the administration of the state.
Kadamba Devi Queen of Pulikesin and Princess Alupa dynasty
Mylaladevi of Kundur
Nijagallina Rani(daughter of king Vikramaditya)
Vijaya Bhattarike(Kalyani Chalukya arasi)
Chalukya Kuvari Akkadevi of Kusugadu
Hariyaladevi
Belavadi Mallamma
Natyarani Shanthala
poetess Kanti
Danachintamani Attimabbe
Helavanakatte Giriyamma
Sanchi Honnamma
Kumara Mallamma
Gamaki Tirumalamba
Kodagina Gowaramma
Jayadevathayi Ligade and many others have enriched Karnataka's heritage.
Adi Narayana Temple at Dodballpur near Bangalore
Adikesava Temple at Kaginelli (Haveri) near Dharwar
Agastyeswara Temple at Tirumukkoodal near Mysore
Ahobala Narasimha Temple at Niratadi near Davangere
Aihole Temples near Dharwar
Akkanna Basti at Sravanabelagola near Hassan
Allanatha (Varadaraja) Temple at Maddur
Amaranarayana Temple at Kaivara near Kolar
Amritalingamanikeshwara Temple at Nanditavare (Malebennur) near Chitradurga
Amriteshwara Temple at Amritapura near Tarikere
Amriteshwara Temple at Annigeri near Hubli
Anantapadmanabha Temple at Hosa Budanur near Mandya
Ananteshwara Temple at Udupi near Mangalore
Anjaneya Temple at Tekal near Kolar
Annapoorani Temple at Kalasa near Chikmagalur
Aprameya Temple at Malur near Kolar
Arkeshwara Templ at Talakad near Mysore
Arkeshwara Temple at Hale Arur (Chamrajnagar) near Mysore
Avimukteshwara Temple at Hoskote near Bangalore
Badami Temples near Dharwar
Badri Narayana Temple at Melkote near Krishnarajpet (Mandya)
Bagandeshwar Temple at Baagamandala near Madikeri
Balakrishna Temple at Udupi near Mangalore
Balarama Temple at Pandeshwar (Udupi) near Mangalore
Banashankari Temple at Annigeri near Hubli
Basappa Temple at Annigeri near Hubli
Basavanna Temple at Haveri near Dharwar
Bhandari Basti at Sravanabelagola near Hassan
Bharateshwara Temple at Avani (Mulbagal) near Kolar
Bhimeshwara Temple at Kaivara near Kolar
Bhrama Jinalaya at Kuppattur near Shimoga
Bhrama Jinalaya at Lakkundi (Gadag) near Dharwar
Bhrammeshwara Temple at Kikkeri (Krishnarajpet) near Mysore
Bucheshwara Temple at Koramangala near Hassan
Chamundeswari Temple at Chamundi Hill near Mysore
Chandeshwari Temple at Srinivaspur near Kolar
Chandeswari Temple at Vogata (Hosakote) near Bangalore
Chandramoulishwara Temple at Udupi near Mangalore
Chandramoulishwara Temple at Chintamani near Kolar
Channakesava Temple at Chikballapur near Kolar
Chatteshwara Temple at Chat Chattanahalli (Halebidu) near Hassan
Chennakesava Temple at Haranhalli (Arsikere) near Hassan
Chennakesava Temple at Aralaguppe near Tiptur
Chennakesava Temple at Belur near Hassan
Dattatreya Temple at Koormagadde (Naradagadde) near Raichur
Dharmeshwara Temple at Kondarahalli (Hosakote) near Bangalore
Dineshwara Temple at Hale Arur (Chamrajnagar) near Mysore
Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambala (Gadag) near Dharwar
Durga Temple at Agara (Yelandur) near Mysore
Eshwara Temple at Anekonda near Davangere
Gajina Basappa Temple at Annigeri near Hubli
Galageshwara Temple at Heggare near Chitradurga
Gangadhareshwara Temple at Srirangapattana near Mysore
Gangadhareshwara Temple at Shivaganga near Tumkur
Gangadhareshwara Temple at Turuvekere near Tumkur
Gangeshwara Temple at Madhugangur near Shimoga
Gavi Gangadhareshwara Temple at Bangalore
Gopalakrishna Temple at Tonnur (Melkote) near Krishnarajpet (Mandya)
Gopalakrishna Temple at Krishnaraja Sagar near Mysore
Gopalakrishna Temple at Patrenahalli near Kolar
Govindeshwara Temple at Near Hassan
Gowreeshwara Temple at Yelandur near Mysore
Harihareshwara Temple at Harihar (Davangere) near Chitradurga
Hire Hanuman Temple at Annigeri near Hubli
Hoysala Temple at Mosale near Hassan
Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu near Hassan
Ishwara Temple at Arsikere near Hassan
Ishwara Temple at Nandigudi near Male Bennur, Chitaladrug
Ishwara Temple at Arsikere near Hassan
Ishwara Temple at Nanditavare (Malebennur) near Chitradurga
Jagadeka Malleshwara Temple at Belagami near Shikarpur
Jain Temple at Bannikere near Shimoga
Jambunatha Swamy Hill Temple at Hospet
Jwalamukhi Tripurasundari Temple at Uddanahalli (Nanjangud) near Mysore
Jwarahareswara Temple at Kandavara near Kolar
Kalabhairava Temple at Seethi near Kolar
Kalahasteshwara Temple at Kaginelli (Haveri) near Dharwar
Kalaseshwara Temple at Kalasa near Chikmagalur
Kalleshwara Temple at Heggare near Chitradurga
Kanakachalapathi Temple at Kanakagiri near Hospet
Kappe Chennigaraya Temple at Belur near Hassan
Kasi Visweswara Temple at Lakkundi (Gadag) near Dharwar
Kasi Visweswara Temple at Hosa Budanur near Mandya
Kattale Basti (Adinatha Jinalaya) at Chandragiri Hill near Hassan
Kedareshwara Templ at Halebidu near Hassan
Kesava Temple at Somnathapura near Mysore
Kirti Narayana Temple at Talakad near Mysore
Kodandaramaswamy Temple at Kanchankatte (Saligram) near Krishnarajpet (Mandya)
Kolaramma Temple at Kolar
Kumaraswamy Saila Temple at Bangalore
Lakshmaneshwara Temple at Avani (Mulbagal) near Kolar
Lakshmi Devi Temple at Dodda-gaddavalli near Hassan
Lakshmi Narasimha Temple at Hole Narasipur near Sravanabelagola
Lakshmi Narayana Temple at Chamundi Hill near Mysore
Lakshmi Temple at Kaginelli (Haveri) near Dharwar
Lakshminarasimha Temple at Nuggihalli near Tiptur
Maha Ganapati Temple at Kurudumale near Kolar
Mahabaleshwar Temple at Chamundi Hill near Mysore
Mahabaleshwar Temple at Gokarna near Karwar
Mahadeva Temple at Itgi near Raichur
Mallari Temple at Gudda Guddaapura near Ranebennur (Dharwar)
Mallikarjuna Hill Temple at Near Talakkad near Mysore
Mallikarjuna Temple at Basaralu near Mandya
Mangayi Basti at Sravanabelagola near Hassan
Markandeshwara Temple at Vokkalery Hill near Kolar
Markandeshwara Temple at Kallur near Raichur
Markandeshwara Temple at Kallur near Raichur
Maruleshwara Temple at Talakad near Mysore
Mookambika Temple at Kollur near Mangalore
Murdeshwar Temple at Murdeshwar (Bhatkal) near Karwar
Nagara Jinalaya at Hatna near Tiptur
Nakeshwara Temple at Near Hassan
Nambi Narayana Temple at Tonnur (Melkote) near Krishnarajpet (Mandya)
Nandi Temples at Nandi Hills near Bangalore
Narada Temple at Naradagadde near Raichur
Narasimha Temple at Devaraya Durga Hill near Tumkur
Narasimha Temple at Kaginelli (Haveri) near Dharwar
Narasimha Temple at Kunigal (Tumkur) near Bangalore
Narasimha Temple at Maddur
Narasimha Temple at Savandrurga near Bangalore
Narasimha Temple at Agara (Yelandur) near Mysore
Navalinga Temples at Kuknur near Hospet
Omkareshwara Temple at Madikeri
Paataleswara Temple at Talakad near Mysore
Pakshi Ranganatha Temple at Kumsi near Shimoga
Pancha Basadi at Humcha near Nagar Taluk
Para Vasudeva Temple at Gundlupet near Mysore
Parsvanatha Basti at Chamrajanagar near Mysore
Parsvanatha Basti at Heggere near Chitradurga
Pattabhirama Temple at Hampi near Hospet
Pattabhirama Temple at Ramanathapura near Krishnarajpet (Mandya)
Pattadakal Temples at Pattadakal near Dharwar
Ramalinga Swamy Temple at Avani (Mulbagal) near Kolar
Ramanatheshwar Temple at Ramanathapura near Krishnarajpet (Mandya)
Rameswara Temple at Agara (Yelandur) near Mysore
Ranganatha Nagareshwara Temple at Bankapura near Hubli
Ranganatha Temple at Anegondi near Hospet
Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapattana near Mysore
Ranganna Temple at Biligiri Rangan Hills near Mysore
Sadasiva Temple at Nuggihalli near Tiptur
Sangameshwara Temple at Kaginelli (Haveri) near Dharwar
Sangameshwara Temple at Mekedatu near Bangalore
Sankareshwara Temple at Near Belur near Hassan
Santemallappa Temple at Oderhalli near Chiknayakanhalli
Savati Ghandavarana Basti at Chandragiri Hill near Hassan
Shankaranarayana Temple at Shankaranarayana (Agumbe) near Shimoga
Shantinatha Basti at Sravanabelagola near Hassan
Shantinatha Jinalaya at Jinanathapura near Hassan
Shatrughneshwara Temple at Avani (Mulbagal) near Kolar
Shiva Temple at Paparajanhalli near Kolar
Siddhadeva Temple at Haveri near Dharwar
Siddheshwara Temple at Bankapura near Hubli
Someshwara Temple at Suttur (Nanjangud) near Mysore
Someshwara Temple at Lakshmeshwar near Hubli
Someshwara Temple at Gadag near Dharwar
Someshwara Temple at Hale Budanur near Mandya
Someshwara Temple at Kurudumale near Kolar
Someshwara Temple at Kunigal (Tumkur) near Bangalore
Someshwara Temple at Magadi near Bangalore
Someshwara Temple at Husigala (Hosakote) near
Someshwara Temple at Kaginelli (Haveri) near Dharwar
Someshwara Temple at Kolar
Someshwara Temple at Haranhalli (Arsikere) near Hassan
Soumyakesava Temple at Nagamangala near Mandya
Gomateswara Temple at Sravanabelagola near Mysore
Srikanteswara Temple at Nanjangud near Mysore
Sripathishwara Temple at Seethi near Kolar
Subramanya Temple at Subramanya near Mangalore
Suryanarayana Temple at Lakkundi (Gadag) near Dharwar
Talakad Vaidyeswara Temple at Talakad near Mysore
Terina Basti Jinalaya at Sravanabelagola near Hassan
The Bull Temple at Bangalore
Tiru Narayana Temple at Melkote near Krishnarajpet (Mandya)
Tirumulasthanam Udayar Templ at Hale Arur (Chamrajnagar) near Mysore
Trikuteshwara Temple at Gadag near Dharwar
Trinishwara Temple at Mysore
Vaidyeswara Temple at Mambali (Yelandur) near Mysore
Varahaswamy Temple at Mysore
Veeraanjaneya Swamy Temple at Mulbagal near Kolar
Veerabhadra Temple at Chikballapur near Kolar
Venkataramanaswamy Temple at Guttahalli near Kolar
Venkatramana Temple at Chiknayakanhalli near Tumkur
Venugopalaswamy Temple at Devanhalli near Bangalore
Vidyashankara Temple at Sringeri near Mangalore
Vijayendra Temple at Bethamangala (Mulbagal) near Kolar
Vira Narayana Temple at Gadag near Dharwar
Vira Narayana Temple at Belur near Hassan
Virabhadra Temple at Kaginelli (Haveri) near Dharwar
Virabhadra Temple at Halebidu near Hassan
Virabhadra Temple at Savandrurga near Bangalore
Virupaksha Temple at Virupakshipura(Mulbagal) near Kolar
Virupaksha Temple at Hampi near Hospet
Vithala Temple at Hampi near Hospet
Yoga Narasimha Temple at Tonnur (Melkote) near Krishnarajpet (Mandya)
Yoga Narasimha Temple at Melkote near Krishnarajpet (Mandya)
Yoga Narasimha Temple at Mudgere near Chikmagalur
Kannada Historic marks
350,000BC
The Hunsgi and Baichbal Valleys in Gulbarga Dist with 200 Acheulean localities, representing one of the densest site accumulations in the Old World. The sites are associated with various types of fauna including wild cattle, horse, deer, elephant, and turtle. The spectacular site that has yielded 15,000 stone tools. The Isampur quarry has revealed the precise locations where the people manufactured stone tools, allowing us to infer how they procured and reduced the available stone. Study of the stone tools has given us insight into the decisions made by the artefact manufacturers.
50,000BC
palaeolithic quarry along the Malaprabha and Ghataprabha rivers in the Kaladgi Basin
5000BC
Pre-Historic Arts in Kupgal Hills in Bellary. Even though the art form is later period than Indus valley, it is similar age to southeast asian art. the art work besides showing plants , Bow and arrow also show a man gripping woman by Hair. some of the dolerite boulders at the upper Kupgal rock art site appear to have been used for percussion purposes. These boulders, which were referred to as ‘musical stones’ bear multiple small groove-like impressions. these impressions emit loud musical ringing tones when struck by granite stones. The production of these deep bell- or gong-like sounds occurs only when the rounded impressions are struck, and not when other parts of the boulders are hit. Similar rounded impressions or ‘ringing rocks’ as such stones are commonly termed in other parts of the world, were subsequently found at other rock art sites in the vicinity, including the dolerite outcrop to the west of Halakundi. This shows the musical sense in the early people.
This period also saw full scale domestication of cattle in this area which shows presence of Ash mounds due to burning of cowdung collected locally called Budhibetta in Kannada.
3500BC
Prehistoric site in Sanganakallu-Kupgal,Bellary confirms Kannadigas wide spread cultivation of wild mungbean(Vigna Radiata),Horse gram (macrotyloma unifolorum) and two millets(Brachiara Romosa and setaria verticillata) for the first time in India ahead of North India and confirms them as first fullscale farmers in South India.
2200BC
proto-historic site at Hadonahalli in Shimoga taluk on the banks of the Tungabhadra. With Continuos occupation.Early historical pottery, including russet coated white paint,an axe and a cleaver of Acheulean types, made on the hematite quartzite, showing particularly the first and the last signs of rolling were found. The area had was a human habitation even from the Early Palaeolithic stage and was a regular dwelling site during the early or late Neolithic and Iron Age. The spread of pebbles on the surface of the site shows signs of the site being deserted after heavy floods.
2135-1755 B.C
Charcolithic site in Hallur
1500BC
Settlement with Horse Bones found in Hallur. Indicating domesticated horse disproving Aryan invasion theory
1435-1230 B.C
Iron weapons Hallur in Dhaward district, Iron age in Karnataka starts prior to 1000BC.
1200BC
1.Hand axe at Lingasugur in Raichur district.
2.Neolithic settlements with Circular huts and small cemetry Tekkalakota Bellary dist
1000BC
Burial grounds found in Koramangala and Chikkajala; pre-historic sites near Anekal and Tabaranahalli in Bangalore
500 to 400 BC
Euripedes and Aristophanes use Kannada words and phrases in their dramas and skits.
300BC
Chandragupta Maurya surrenders his Empire and Comes to Sravanabelagola in Hassan Dist with 15000 followers. Place is called chandragupta Basdi.
240BC
Maski inscription shows both Ashoka and Priyadarshin, which confirmed that ashoka is priyadarshin
230BC
Emperor Ashoka's Brahmagiri,Siddapura,Jatinga-Ramesvara edicts which has kannada words.
100BC
Charition mime, a Greek drama discovered at Oxyrhynchus contains scenes where Indian characters in the skit speak dialogue in Kannada
50BC
Buddhist site at Tunnur in Chitapur taluk of Gulbarga district, Mandoka Jataka story, Dharmachakra, a piece of stupa fence, and two types of memorial stones. A Inscription in Brahmi script and Prakrit language. One of them reads: "Valavasa Papalana Kanhasa." Kanhasa means Krishna.
27BC
coins of Roman emperors Augustus, Tyberius and Claudius found in Yeshwantpur and HAL areas in Bangalore
50AD
Ptolemy Map shows places and ports in Karnataka
250AD
Two inscriptions from the Sinhalese monastery in Nāgārjunikonda, refer to the teachers of the ‘Theriyas, Vibhajjavādas, Mahāvihāravāsins’, who have brought faith to various lands refers to Banwasi.
300 - 400 AD
Nishadi (Sallekhana Samadhi or Nishadi stone memorials erected for the departed revered Jains) inscription at Chandragiri hill of Shravanabelagola. It contains Prakrit, Sanskrit and Purvada Halegannada words. The four-lined inscription has six words. The inscription is in Shatavahana Brahmi and Aadi Ganga script. This is also claimed by Epigraphist M.G. Manjunath to be oldest full length kannada inscription
444AD
Sanskrit-Kannada bilinguial copper plate inscription (tamarashaasana) is the Tumbula inscriptions of Western Ganga Dynasty
450 AD
First example of full length Kannada language stone inscription (shilashaasana) in Hale Kannada (Old-Kannada) script can be found in the Halmidi inscription. This inscription is completely in kannada(No prakrit or Sanskrit words)
500 AD
discovery of copper coin Banavasi, Uttara Kannada district with the inscription Srimanaragi in Kannada script of Kadamabas
543AD
Badami cliff shilashaasana of Pulakesi I Sanskrit inscription in Hale Kannada script.
700AD
Kappe Arabhatta inscription, found on a rock edict in Badami written in archaic Kannada script.
“Good to the good, sweet to the sweet,
This exceptional man of Kaliyuga
Is a veritable Madhava himself “
800AD
Kannada tamarashaasana in Old Kannada script belongs to Alupas ruled by Aluvarasa II from Belmannu, South Kanara district and has the double crest fish, their royal emblem.
900AD
Ancient manuscripts The oldest well-preserved palm leaf manuscript is in old Kannada and is that of Dhavala, preserved in the Jain Bhandar, Mudbidri, Dakshina Kannada district. The manuscript contains 1478 leaves written in ink.
964 AD
The inscription at Jura in Jabalpur, reign of Rashtrakuta Krishna III, classical Kannada literary composition, with charming poetic diction in polished Kannada metre.
1400AD
Hakka and Bukka Build Hampi
