Early Rashtrakutas

When dealing with History, Suddenly we see Rashtrakutas defeating Chalukyas and forming an empire. An Empire at one time stretched from Himalayas to  Srilanka. Is it possible for someone to build an empire immediately coming to power. So we start digging and we come across Early Rashtrakutas.

History from Plates
Undikavatika grant (Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay)of Abhimanyu residing at Manapura calls himself Rashtrakuta and also gives geneology. Indology scholars confused these early rashtrakutas with kings of Sarbhapura and for decades disimissed the Rashtrakuta rule.

Then Pandarangapalli plates (Mysore Archeological Survey) were discoverd in Kohlapur. It gives geneology of Mananka, Devaraja, Avidheya. Dr.Krishna of Mysore Archeological Survey identified Avidheya as the third son of Devaraja. He also said that Devaraja, son of Mananka has three sons. Avidheya, Jayaraja, Bhavisya. Between the sons the extensive Rashtrakuta empire stretching from Mahanadi and Tapti to Bhima comprising of three Maharastras were divided. Jayaraja was ruling over parts of Mahanadi, Bhavisyas over Northern Maharastra and Avideya over Southern Maharastra and Northeastern Karnataka.

Krishna son of Indra and Govinda who are mentioned as defeated by chalukya jayasimha and Pulakesin II of Badami belong to this family. Overthrowing them Pulakesin II become lord of three Maharastras.

However Altekar of Bhandarkar Institute dismissed the vast empire of Rashtrakuta, claiming that many kings do not call themselves Rashtrakutas and other kings such as Nalas, Mauryas, Kalachuris and kadambas were ruling many areas of Maharastra.

Rashtrakuta Empire in 5th century AD ?
First the identification of sarbhapurias of Chattisgarh with Rashtrakutas was disimissed.
Identification of Manamatra with Mananka and Sudevaraja with Devaraja was dismissed.
The Paleography of Inscriptions suggested that Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Western variety of Brahmi script similar to Satavahana-Kadamba script and Sarbhapuria Inscriptions were box headed script of central India similar to Gupta inscriptions
The Royal emblems are Lion facing Rightside and figure of standing lakshmi with elephant on either side pouring water on her.
Once these identification and differentiation was done, then it became easy to identify the Rashtrakuta Kings. The King Avidheya of Pandaranganapalli and King Abhimanyu of Undikavatika plates belong to same dynasty. They have same geneology starting with Manaka, Devaraja as son (described as lord of Gods (Indra)), Inscribed in Similar Characters, Emblem of Lion facing Right. One gives the family as Rashtrakuta other is silent. But that is not rare.

Extend of Empire
Now where they ruling different regions. Avidheya was ruling southern Maharastra and Northern Karnataka. Bhavisya was ruling over Northern Maharastra and southern Madya pradesh. The Pandaranganapalli plates gives Mananka as glorious ruler of Kuntala, Conquered Asmaka(godavari Valley) and Vidarbha. The Capital was Manapura, which is today Man(satara Dist), throughwhich Manganga(tributory of Bhima) flows. Another Copper plates from Sisodra in Goa mentions Devaraja father of Chandravarman of gomins. There are many theories on this. This devaraja may be different from Rashtrakutas, Rashtrakutas were originally Gomins etc. This record shows that Devaraja held sway over South Konkan also. So the theory of big Rashtrakuta Empire in 5th century AD  is tenable.


Period of Rashtrakuta rule
Mr. Krishnamacharlu who edited Sisodra Plates says the characters resemble Mayidavolu plates of Pallava Sivaskandavarman. He also draws to certain Prakrit expressions found on the grant. Which puts the plates to 3rd or 4th century AD. Now Pandaranganapalli and Undikavatika plates are put at 5th century AD. The grants themselves gives jovian year of Bhadrapada. This does not happen after 5th century AD in South India. So Rashtrakutas started as contemproaries of Trikutakas(ruling over North Konkan, Gujarat and North Maharastra) and Vakatakas (ruling Vidarba). They were lords of Kuntala, because Mananka started as ruler of Kuntala.

 Dejja Maharaj is also from this family, who gave Gokak Plates grant in Belgaum. This record was issued 845 years of Aguptayika Kings expired. This date corresponds to 532-33 AD. There was inscription from Madhavavarman which was also clubbed to Rashtrakutas. But it now certain, it belong to Vishnukundin Madhavavarman. Kalyani Chalukya records reveal Jayasimha of Badami Chalukyas defeated King Indra son of Krishna. We know Govinda who invaded with his troops of elephants at the time of accession of Pulakesin II belong to Rashtrakutas. Aihole inscription state that Govinda Immdiately obtained reward for the services. But Pulakesin soon annexed all the territories upto Narmada. So the Rashtrakuta empire is replaced by Chalukya Empire.

Lords of the Kuntala
Vindhyashakti II of Vatsagulma Vakataka in Ajanta caves Inscription claims to have defeated Lord of Kuntalas. Mananka is found have conquered Vidarbha. So may be it is a battle with no clear victors. So if we put mananka as Contemproary of Vindyashakthi II, then he flourished around 4th century AD. Prithvisena II father Narendrasena Married Ajjhitabhattarika, daughter of Lord of Kuntala. This princess may be of Rashtrakuta Lineage. Harisena last known Vakataka ruler records victory over Lord of Kuntala. This may also be Rashtrakutas. If we identify Rashtrakutas as lord of Kuntala, then Kadambas of Banavasi as being identified as lords of Kuntala goes. Also we find no record of Kadambas in Kuntala.

 Certain passages of Kuntaleshwaradautya, a sanskrit work ascribed to Kalidasa, which has been cited by Kavyamimasa of Rajashekara, Chandragupta II Vikramaditya of Guptas sent Kalidasa as an ambassador to the court of Lord of Kuntala. Kalidasa was not well received here, but he gradually gained kuntaleshwara favour and stayed in the court for sometime. When he returned to Vikramaditya Court , he reported kuntaleshwara spending time in enjoyment throwing responsibility and governance on vikramaditya. This Kuntaleshwara is identified as Vakataka Pravarasena II, But this appears plausible as Vakataka did not rule kuntala, they raided few times sure.

There is original kuntaleshwars of (Chutus)Satakarnis mentioned in Hathimgumpha inscription of Kharvela.  Kharvela has also mentioned to have defeated Rashtrika and Bhojas. Are Rashtrikas the ancestors of Rashtrakutas. We don't know. Rashtrikas and Bhojas are also mentioned in Ashoka edicts. They are roughly ruling the same areas of Maharastra.  Rashtrikas can be pronounced Rattas in prakrit. Rattas as later decendents of Rashtrakutas call themselves. But Rashtrakutas do not link themselves to these Rashtrika.

As Feudatories
Rashtrakutas later moved to Berar where they founded the principality with Acalapura(Elichpur) as their capital. the Tivarkhed Plates of Nannaraja shows family ruling in 631 AD. This gives geneology of Durgaraja, his son Govindaraja, his son Svamikaraja and his son Nannaraja. Altekar gives Approximate dates to them starting with 570AD with twenty years each. When Pulakesin II defeated Kalachuri Bhuddharaja and annexed all territories including, Maharastra, Vidarba, Konkan, Central and Southern Gujarat. He placed his trusted chiefs in thier positions. Sendraka in Gujarat. Similarly he should have placed Svamikaraja in Berar. We can find Nannarja plates resemble Kalachuri records, who preceded them. One thing that has to be noted here is that Early Rashtrakutas were saivites and later Rashtrakutas are Vaishnavites like Chalukyas. The Eagle has replaced Lion as emblem.

Rashtrakuta Empire
Early Rastrakutas
(Rastrakutas of Manapura)
Mananka(Founder) (375-400 AD)
Devaraja (400-425AD)
(Sons - Jayaraja  Bhavisya , Avidheya )
Avidheya
Bhavisya (son - Abhimanyu)
Abhimanyu(440)
Krishna
Indra (Defeated by Chalukya Jayasimha)
Dejja-Maharaja  (A.D. 520-550)
Durgaraja (570-590)AD
Govindaraja(Defeated by Pulikesin II)(590-610)

(Feudatory of Badami Chalukyas)
(Rastrakutas of Achalpura (Elichipur))
(Chalukyas defeated them and shifted them to Achalapura, annexed after defeating Kalachuris)
Svamikraja (610-630)
Nannaraja alias Yuddhasura (630 -650AD)
Dantivarman(650-665AD)
Son Indra
Grandson Govindaraja(665-700AD)
karkkaraja(700 -715AD)
Indra(715-735AD)

(Independent)
(Rastrakutas of Manyakheta)
Dantidurga (735 - 756)
Krishna I (756 - 774)
Govinda II (774 - 780)
Dhruva Dharavarsha (780 - 793)
Govinda III (793 - 814)
Amoghavarsha I (814 - 878) (Shifted Capital from Mayurkhandi to Manyakheta)
Krishna II (878 - 914)
Indra III (914 -929)
Amoghavarsha II (929 - 930)
Govinda IV (930 – 936)
Amoghavarsha III (936 – 939)
Krishna III (939 – 967)
Khottiga Amoghavarsha (967 – 972)
Karka II (972 – 973)
Indra IV (973 – 982)
Place of Origin of Rashtrakutas
 From the Inscriptions we find Mananka founded the rule at Manapura, Which is todays Man in Satara District. The River Manganga, tributory of Bhima flows through this place. They call themselves as Lattalura-puraveshvara , which means lord of the great city of Lattalura (Latur). Latur is not far away from Satara. They might have originated.
Other Claims of origin we have already dealt in the Origin of Rashtrakutas article.

Building an Empire
Dandidurga who was ruliing in Acalapura defeated his failing overlord Kirtivarman II of Chalukyas of Badami. He also installed his father-in-law Nandivarman Pallava to Kanchi throne. Successors to Dandidurga took their empire to great heights.As one historian puts it, the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayan caves to the shores of the Malabar

Sources
The Rashtrakutas of Manapura by V.V.Mirashi ,Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
Kamat Potpourri :Coins
Clockwise from centre Lions of Goa Kadambas, Harihara II (1377-1404 A.D) of Vijayanagar, Rashtrakuta, Ganga, Badami Chalukya , Alupas of South Kanara ,Kalachuri 

Related 
Origin of Rashtrakutas
Kannada Kings
Rajputs Origin
Kuntala Janapada
Who is Trivaradeva
Date of Kalidasa
Date of Kamasutra
Origin of Marathi
Topics

Karnataka and Arabia Since Ancient Times : Arabian Nights

Geographically Karnataka and Arabia are next door neighbors. Naturally they share a lot of history and interactions.  The Persian ruler Khusru-II established diplomatic relations with Arabia (Middle East) and  King Pulikesi-II of the Chalukyas of Badami (535 - 757 A.D.). Some of the Arabs had settled on the West Coast of Karnataka and inscriptions speak of them as Tajjikas. The Rashtrakutas (757-1000 A.D.) had a Tajjika governor at Konkan as testified by Sanjan plates, and Arab travellers also speak of Muslim settlements in the major commercial centres of the Rashtrakuta Empire.  Their guild called Hanjamana (Anjuman) is mentioned in the records of the Kadambas of Goa, Alupas of Dakshina Kannada and Vijayanagara rulers.  This guild  Hanjamana was part and parcel of every town assembly. Arabs also became popular in Karnataka during the Vijayanagara period (1346-1565 A.D.), as the empire employed Arabic soldiers, and all towns and villages in the empire had Arabic residents as testified by Barbosa.  The Bahamanis were the first Muslim rulers to enter Karnataka and to have ruled the Northern areas. They were followed by the Adil Shahis, Barid Shahis, Mughals, Haider and Tipu Sultan.   let us explore the unique relationship. Earliest Contact between Karnataka and Arabia or Middle east is Sumerians.


Sumerian
Sumerians migrated from India to  Southern Mesopotamia around four and half thousand years ago carrying with them the seeds of civilization. It was also suggested that they migrated from the west coast (Ancient Kannada Speaking region of Karnataka and Maharastra) of India. The fact that they were not a local people is suggested by the fact that their language belongs to a completely different and isolated group.  Experts trying to unravel their roots have found two convenient ways. One is the Language similarities and Physical appearance. 

Physical Appearance
Analyzing the bones, skulls and descriptions of them by other cultures indicate these: These people are of medium stature, with slightly dark complexion and hair , to which race they are allied with dark eyes, and oval faces, broad noses, rather feeble jaws, and slight sinewy bodies. This description fits for normal Indian. This description also closely describes the regal person seen on a famous clay tablet from the Indus Valley. These people should have migrated from coastal areas of raising of sea level on the west coast submerging many cities now found under the west coast sea from Dwaraka to lanka around 2500BC.


Language Similarities.
1)Ur or Uru (=city) was a major city during Sumerian civilizatin times. The word Uru or Ooru ( village or township) has got into almost all Dravidan languages including Kannada/Tulu/Kodava. Possibly the the name of the once famous Sumerian city was extended to all civilized settlements later on. It is a common suffix now in most of the place names in southern India. Bengaluru, Mangaluru, Mundkur etc.There are also other Sumerian/Dravidian words sharing similar sounding verb -ur. 
2) (= firewood.) has similar words in Tulu, Kannada (Uri- is to burn). 
3)(=to till or grow) has Urpini/Ulpini (Tulu), Ulu(=to till) in Kannada.
4)One of the numbers,"five" in Sumerian was Ia or i (=five).It is ain in Tulu and aidu in Kannada.
5)Sig(=sun burnt clay tiles) has analogous Sike or seke (=sunny sultriness) and Sigadi (=fire place/oven) in Tulu/Kannada.
There may be more such analogous words in Sumerian and Tulu/Kannada.
So Citing these reasons Sumerians  considered to be the earliest known civilization of Middle east is said to be from Karnataka or Kannadiga tribe.


Hurrians (Mittanis) and Kassites
Hittites , Mittanis,and Kassites  are the Indian Tribes which went to West after drying up of the Saraswathi river around 2000BC. Mittanies also called Hurrians(From city of Hurr) by Hittites,  Naharin(of River) by Egyptians, may be due to their presence in Eupharates and Tigries delta. Mittanis had iron weapons like their Hittite counterparts. Mittanis are related to Kassites and had marital relations frequently. Both of them called themselves Uratu(From the Hills). Similar word in kannada means from the city. Mittani and Kassites names are all Indian Name, So no doubt they are Indian Tribe. What we are interested is whether we can trace them to karnataka. There were several clans among Mittanis and they had different dialects.  One point they can be traced is extensive use of Iron technologies and their claims that they are from Hill Country. Which suggest Karnataka roots. After the fall of Babylon empire Hittites, Mittanis, kassites formed an Indian superstate in the Middle east, with another Indian Tribe Hyksos controlling Egypt, they were in complete domination of Middle east. They seem to have definite Karnataka connection.


Trade and Navigation
Navigation was known in Sumer between the 4th and the 3rd millennium BCE, and was probably known by the Indians  before the Sumerians. The Egyptians had trade routes through the Red sea, importing spices . Arabia Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the manipulation of the monsoon winds By making use of the maritime trade routes, bulk commodity trade became possible for the Romans in the 2nd century BCE. A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at one-sixtieth the cost of over-land routes. The Trade between Western Coast (kannada Speaking regions of Karnataka and Maharastra) and Arabia was in brisk pace.


The replacement of Greece by the Roman empire as the administrator of the Mediterranean basin led to the resumption of direct trade with Karnataka and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen. According to Milo Kearney (2003) "The South Arabs in protest took to pirate attacks over the Roman ships in the Gulf of Aden. In response, the Romans destroyed Aden and favored the Western Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea." Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single empire.


The Ptolemaic dynasty had initiated Greco-Roman maritime trade contact with India using the Red Sea ports. The Roman historian Strabo mentions a vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt, indicating that monsoon was known and manipulated for trade in his time.By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India, trading in a diverse variety of goods. 
Karnataka exports of spices find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150 AD), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century). 


Wootz Steel
Wootz is the anglicized version of ukku in kannada language of the state of Karnataka, a term denoting steel. Literary accounts suggest that the steel from the Karnatka was exported to Europe, China, the Arab world and the Middle East. Though an ancient material, wootz steel also fulfills the description of an advanced material, since it is an ultra-high carbon steel exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness and held sway over a millennium in three continents- a feat unlikely to be surpassed by advanced materials of the current era. Wootz deserves a place in the annals of western science due to the stimulus provided by the study of this material in the 18th and 19th centuries to modern metallurgical advances, not only in the metallurgy of iron and steel, but also to the development of physical metallurgy in general and metallography in particular.A description from the Crusades of the Damascus blades is as follows: One blow of a Damascus sword would cleave a European helmet without turning the edge or cut through a silk handkerchief drawn across it. One sixth century writer describes blades as having a water pattern whose wavy streaks are glistening-it is like a pond on whose surface the wind is gliding. Let us see how this wootz steel is different and unique ot karnataka


Carbon Nanotubes
According to Robert Floyd Curl, Jr., Nobel Prize Winner in Chemistry in 1996, Indian craftsmen used nanotechnology in Wootz steel as well as in paintings. More specifically carbon nanotubes, first announced by Russian scientists in 1952, was found in the sword of Tipu Sultan as well as in Ajanta paintings. Carbon nanotubes which are cylidrical fullerenes have extraordinary strength in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus
This steel making process was practiced in Karnataka since great antiquity. The ancient Indian steel was known as Damascene steel in Persia and was in great demand in the Persian courts of the First Millennium BC. Even Alexander was presented a sword made of such steel. Coze studied the etymology of the terms denoting steel. Taking into account the fact that the names given to steel in different languages have always a technical content (hardness, resistance, etc.), Le Coze traced the transformation of the term Wootz, denoting the Indian crucible steel, through the Arab texts of the 9-12th centuries AD describing the preparation of the crucible steel named fulad. He discovered that fulad had an Indian origin of the word as transformed by Arab travellers. The subsequent success of Arabs in many wars shows that Karnataka's Wootz has played a prominent role. 


There are numerous early literary references to steel from India from Mediterranean sources including one from the time of Alexander (3rd c. BC) who was said to have been presented with 100 talents of Indian steel.During the reigns of the Roman Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, Ferrum Indium appears in the list of dutiable articles. 


An ancient Greek chemical treatise entitled "On the Tempering of Indian Steel". Edrisi has noted that "The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron. They have also workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world. It is impossible to find anything to surpass the edge that you get from Indian Steel". This passage which has been quoted in the notes to the Periplus on page 71 proves beyond doubt, in the words of a foreign historian, that the art of smelting and casting iron was well developed in ancient India.
Pant , Bronson has summarised several accounts of the reputation of Indian iron and steel in Greek and Roman sources which suggest the export of high quality iron and steel from ancient India.
Zaky pointed out that it was the Arabs who took ingots of wootz steel to Damascus following which a thriving industry developed there for making weapons and armour of this steel, the renown of which has given the steel its name.


In the 12th century the Arab Edrisi mentioned that the Hindus excelled in the manufacture of iron and that it was impossible to find anything to surpass the edge from Indian steel, and he also mentioned that the Indians had workshops where the most famous sabres in the world were forged,. while other Arab records mention the excellence of Hinduwani or Indian steel as discussed by Egerton.


Several European travellers including Francis Buchanan and Voysey from the 17th century onwards observed the manufacture of steel in Karnataka and Deccan by a crucible process.
By the late 1600s shipments running into tens of thousands of wootz ingots were traded to Persia. This indicates that the production of wootz steel was almost on an industrial scale in what was still an activity predating the Industrial Revolution in Europe.


Marco Polo has mentioned that iron and Ondanique was sold in the markets of Kerman in Iran. The word Ondanique has been interpreted as a corruption of the Persian word Hundwaniy which meant 'Indian Steel'.
Indeed the word wootz is a corruption of the word for steel ukku


Indo scythian
When parts of Karnataka/Maharastra were under western satraps and Middle east under scythians, there were large trade between two parts of the world.


Marsh Arabs
The society of the Marsh Arabs was divided into two main groups by occupation. One group bred and raised domestic buffalo(Similar Life style to Karnataka) while others cultivated crops such as rice, barley, wheat and pearl millet; they also kept some sheep and cattle. Rice cultivation was especially important; it was carried out in small plots cleared in April and sown in mid-May. Cultivation seasons were marked by the rising and setting of certain stars, such as the Pleiades and Sirius. Same crop as Karnataka.
The origins of the Maʻdān are still a matter of some interest. British colonial ethnographers found it difficult to classify some of the Maʻdān's social customs and speculated that they might have originated in India, while it was rumoured amongst neighbouring tribes that they had Persian origins.

Many scholars have proposed historical and genetic links between the Marsh Arabs and the ancient Sumerians, based on shared agricultural practices and methods of house building. There is, however, no written record of the marsh tribes until the ninth century AD, and the Sumerians were absorbed by the Akkadians (Assyrians-Babylonians) by around 1800 BC, some 2700 years before. Norwegian explorer, archaeologist and ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl wrote:
“ In the veins of the Ahwar Arabs there runs Sumerian blood more than that in the veins of any other Arabian tribe. Only those Ahwar Arabs are the grandchildren of the ancient civilization. ”
—Thor Heyerdahl 
The case seem to point to Indian Origin of  Maʻdān.


Chalukyas and Arabs 

The  Arab writer Tabari speaks of Persian envoys visiting the court of the Chalukyas of Badami King Pulakeshi-II and the diplomatic exchanges.

Pulikesin defeated Arab Invasion
In the early years of Vikramaditya's  II reign, Arab invaders who had established themselves in the Sindh made a push into the Deccan. According to Navsari Plates, Avanijanashraya Pulakesi, a son of Vikramaditya I's brother Jayasimhavarman who was the governor of the Lata branch (Gujarat) fought and stopped them in 739 CE. Vikramaditya II so appreciated his valour, he conferred the title of Avanijanasraya (refuge of the people of the earth) on Pulakesi. The Rashtrakuta King Dandivarman or Dantidurga also fought along the Chalukyas against the Arabs. The result was not only Arabs beaten back, but also Gurjara was brought under direct control of Badami Chalukyan Empire.The Indian Numerals travelled to Arabia during Chalukya rule with extensive contacts between the two.

Siddharaja protects Arabs
The Muslim Historian Awfi recorded that Siddharaja, the Chalukyan king punished his Hindu subjects of Cambay for Rioting against the Muslims and gave Muslim merchant community funds to rebuild their mosque which had been destroyed  in the riots.  


Rastrakutas resist Arab incursions
The very Arab attack on India had taken place  in Sindh in the year 715 C.E. These Muslim invaders were Arabs led by Mohammad Bin Qasim. They had displaced Raja Dabir who ruled Sindh from his capital Deval (near modern Karachi). The actual reason for this invasion was that Raja Dabir was aiding the Iranian (Zoroastrian) princes in trying to overthrow the Arab Rule in Persia. This seems to be a fact as many Sassanian nobles from Iran had taken refuge in Sindh and were plotting for the liberation of their country from the Arab yoke. But the pretext given by Arab historians for the Arab invasion of Sindh is that Raja Dabir's navy had detained an Arab merchant ship. To avenge this detention of a merchant ship, the Arabs overran the entire kingdom of Raja Dabir as also the neighbouring kingdom of Mulasthana (Multan). They even unsuccessfully tried to attack Malwa (Malibah in Arab records). After this invasion which was limited to Sindh, for a period of 300 years all further Muslim attacks were thwarted by Prathihara kings and Gujarat branch Rastrkutas. 


Rastrakutas Trade with Arab
Karnataka has long straight coastline of 254 km with different types of natural harbours. we should also include Konkan coast.  Estuaries have played an important role in maritime activities. The important ports of Karnataka are Karwar, Bhatkal, Honnavar, Basrur, Barkur, Gangolly, Malpe, Udyavara and Mangalore played an active role in establishing the trade contacts with outside countries. The sea trade of Karnataka constituted a significant part of her economic activities and secured for her a niche in the oceanic trade of the western coast of India from the earliest times. The literary and archaeological evidence indicates that its sea trade extended up to Malaysia, Sumatra, and Java, Cambodia on the southeast and Arab countries Persia and Egypt on the west. 


In the "Silsilatuttavarlkh" , a history written by an Arab trader Sulaiman, in A. H. 237 (V. S. 908-A.D.
851) and modified and completed by Abuzaldul Hasan of Siraf, in A. H. 303 (V. S. 973=A.D. 916), it is thus stated : 

"The Balhara is the most eminent of the princes of India, and the Indians acknowledge his superiority. Every prince in India is master in his own state, but all pay homage to the supermacy of Balhara. The representatives sent by the Balhara to other princes are received with most profound respect in order to show him honour. He gives regular pay to his troops, as the practice is among the Arabs. He has many horses and elephants, and immense wealth. The coins which pass in his country are the Tatarlya dirhams, each of which weighs a dirham and a half of the coinage of the king." 

The above statement seems to be a sketch of the reign of Rastrakuta Amoghavarsha I. when this book was written and who had also attacked Rashtrakuta king Dhruvaraja I of Gujrat. The kingdom of the Rashtrakuta king Dhruvaraja 1 of the Deccan extended from Rameshvara in the south to Ayodhya in the north. In the Chronology of Nepal it is stated that in Shaka 8. 811 (V. 8. 946 A.D. 889) Kyanadeva, the founder of the dynasty of Karnatik, having conie up from the Deccan, took the whole of Nepal and for (> generations his descendants ruled there. In Shaka Sannat 811 Krishnaraja II was the king of Karnatik ; and seventh in descent from him was Karkaraja II from whom Tailapa II of the Chalukya dynasty seized the kingdom of the Rash^rakutas. So, it is probable that the descendants of Dhruvaraja 1 of Manyakheta, having progressed beyond Ayodhya, might have captured a portion of Nepal and afterwards Krishnaraja II, having advanced farther, taken the whole of the country. As the boundaries of China and Nepal are adjacent, Sulaiman might have, for thip reason, recorded the extent of their kingdom to be upto the Chinese frontier.


They are dated from the year in which the dynasty acquired the throne. They do not, like the Arabs, use the Hijra of the prophet, but date their eras from the beginning of their kings' reigns; and their kings live long, frequently reigning for fifty years. The inhabitants of the Balhara's country say that if
their kings reign and live for a long time, it is solely in consequence of the favour shown to the Arabs. In fact, among all the kings there is no one to be found who is so partial to the Arabs as the Balhara; and his subjects follow his example/'  "Balhara is the title borne by all the kings of this dynasty. It is similar to Chosroes (of the Persians), and is not a proper name. The kingdom of the Balhara commences on the seaside, at the country of kukam (Konkan)on the tongue of land which stretches to China. The Balhara has around him several kings with whom he is at war, but whom he greatly excels. Among them is the king of the Jurz
.

In the book "Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik", written  by Ibn Khurdadba, who died in A. H. 300 (V. S. 969= A. D. 912), it is thus stated:  "The greatest king of India is Balhara, whose name imports "king of kings." He wears a ring in which is inscribed the following sentence : "What is begun with resolution ends with success." The book named "Murujul Zahab", written by Al- Masudi about A. H. 332 (V. S. 1001A.D. 944), contains the following:  "The city of Mankir(Manyakheta), which was the great centre of India, submitted to a king called the Balhara, and the name of this prince continues to his successors who reign in that capital until the present time (332 A.H.)." " The greatest of the kings of India in our time is the Balhara, sovereign of the city of Mankir. Many of the kings of India turn their faces towards him in their prayers, and they make supplications to his ambassadors, who come to visit them. The kingdom of the Balhara is bordered by many other countries of India. . .The capital of the Balhara is eighty Sindi Parasangs from the sea, (and the Parasang2 is equal to eight miles). His troops and elephants are innumerable, but his troops are mostly infantry, because the seat of his government is among the mountains. . .Bayura  who is the king of Kanauj, is an enemy of the Balhara, the king of India The inhabitants of Mankir, which is the capital of the Balhara, speak the Kirlya(Kannada)  language, which has this name from Kira(karnataka)  the place where it is spoken." 


Al Istakhr :  who wrote the "Kitabul Akalim", in A. H. 340 (V. S. IGOo A.D. 931) as also Ibn H iukal,e
who came to India between A. H. 331 and 35b (A.D. 943 and 968) and wrote the "Ashkal-ul-Bilad" in A. H. 366 (A.D.=976), say: "From Kambaya1 to Saimur2 is the land of the Balhara, and in it there are several Indian kings. The city in which the Balhara resides is Mankir, which has an extensive territory."


 From the above extracts, taken from the writings of the Arabian travellers, we conclude that at that time the power of the Karnataka Empire under Rashtrakutas had reached its zenith. The Rahshtrakuta Dantidurga defeated Solanki (Chalukya) 'Vallabha' Kirtivarman and assumed the title of 'Vallabharaja which was also attached to the names of all his successors.  


Arabs about Rastrakutas
In all Indian kingdoms the sovereign power resides in the royal family, without ever departing from it, and the heirs of the family follow each other in regular succession. In like manner, there are families of learned men, of physicians, and of all the artificers concerned in the various arts; and none of these are ever mixed with the family of a different profession. The several states of the Indies are not subject to one king, but each province has its own; though the Balhara is considered in the Indies as king of kings. The Chinese are fond of gaming and all manner of diversions; but the Indians condemn them, and have no pleasure in such employments. They drink no wine, neither do they use vinegar, because it is made from wine; although this abstinence does not proceed from any religious duty: but they allege that a king given to wine is not worthy of being a king; for how should a drunkard be able to manage the affairs of a kingdom, especially as wars are so frequent between the neighbouring states. Their wars are not usually undertaken to possess themselves of the dominions of others, and I never heard of any except the people bordering on the pepper country that seized the dominions of their neighbours after victory. When a prince masters the dominions of a neighbour, he confers the sovereignty upon some person of the royal family of the conquered country, and thus retains it in dependence upon himself, under the conviction that the natives would never submit to be otherwise governed. 


Tax on Arabs
We learn from the copper grant,2 dated V. S. 1161 (A.D. 1104), of Govindachandra, found at Basahl, that it was Chandradeva of the Gahadavala branch of the Rashtrakuta family, who had restored order by suppressing the anarchy that had resulted on the deaths of kings Karna and Bhoja. It also refers that Govindachandra had granted in charity the village of Basahi (Basahl) together with the 'Turushkadanda (cess levied upon the Mohmmedans), which shows that just as the Mohammedan kings levied 'Jaziya' upon the non-Mohammedans, in the like manner, Madnapala levied a tax upon the Muslims. This proves his power and glory.


Bahmani sultans
Even-though Bahmani sultans based out of Gulbarga promoted Persian as the court language , Arabic was also used, which led to interactions between Kannada and Arabic.  They made  many Arabic Inscriptions in Karnataka


Adil Shah II
The Dakhani language, an amalgam of Persian-Arabic and Kannada, developed into an independent spoken and literary language. Under the Adil Shahis many literary works were published in Dakhani. Ibrahim Adil Shah II's book of poems and music, Kitab-e-Navras is in Dakhani. The Mushaira (poetic symposium) was born in the Bijapur court and later traveled north. The Dakhani language, which was growing under the Bahamani kings, later came to be known as Dakhan Urdu to distinguish it from the North Indian Urdu. Ibrahim Adil Shah II was scholar in Kannada as well. 


Hyder and Tippu
Hyder and Tippu natives of karnataka though patronised Persian, gave patronage to Arabic as well. Interaction between Arabic and Kannada reached zenith during this period.. 

Sultan Jamaluddin
Ibn Batuta, who was entertained by the Sultan Jamaluddin, ruler of Hinavr (Honavar in North Kanara), but a feudatory of the Hindu king "Haryab", has left an interesting account of a coastal Muslim dinner. Sitting on a chair, he was served food on a copper table called khawanja, in a copper plate talam (thali), by jariya (beautiful or slave girl) wrapped in a silk sari. She would ladle out rice from a big copper vessel, pour ghee over it, add pickles of pepper, green ginger, lemon and tender mangoes. The second helping consisted of rice with cooked fowl. The third serving was another variety of chicken, also with rice. Then followed different fish preparations with rice. Thereafter vegetables cooked in ghee, and milk dishes were served with rice. The meal was rounded off with kushan or curded milk. Hot water was drunk after the meals, as cold water would be harmful in the rainy season . The food habits of the aristocracy followed a regional pattern; except for the religious taboos, there was no marked difference between Hindu and Muslim repasts. The Nalachampu gives a vivid description of a wedding feast or buvaduta with all its regal magnificence


Conversation between Arabic and Kannada
Arabic Words in Kannada
This is specifically true of many words dealing with army, trade and commerce. Words such as PVju, (army) trAsu (weighing balance), tEji (horse) had crept in to Kannada by twelfth century itself.


From the fifteenth century onwards these words found their way in to the South Dravidian through Dakkhini Urdu. Village officials dealing with land records used many administrative terms relating to land revenue and legislation, which have become part of the common language.” (‘Dravidian Languages’ by Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, 2003, Cambridge University Press) .
Many of the words borrowed like this were not replaced during the British rule and they are being used even today. However the process of borrowing new words has stopped.


Most of the words borrowed like this have taken up a vowel at the end like Kannada. (shumAr=sumAru, jamIn=jamInu, vasUl-vsUli etc) Some times the final ‘aa’ changes to ‘e’ (KajAnA=KajAne, tamASA=tamASe, ravAnA=ravAne etc.)


 A list of some words borrowed from Persian and Arabic is given below.
Persian: rAstA=raste=road, shumAr=sumAru=approximately, shiPAras=shiPArassu=influence, dastAvej=dastAvEju=document, sibbandi=staff, sIpAyI=sipAyi=soldier, jamIn=jamInu=arable land, gumAsta=clerk.


 Arabic: anAmat=anAmattu=all together, jaPti=search, nAjuk=nAjUku=delicate, mAmUl=mAmUli=as usual, bribe, daPtar=daPtaru=file, sAvkAr=sAhukAra=rich man, CAkU=cAku=knife

            Incidentally many of these words are more are less similar in Kannada.  Persian and Arabic words are found in many ancient literary works of Kannada such as ‘Shabdamanidarpana’ by Keshiraja, ‘Basavapurana’ by Bheemakavi, ‘Chennabasavapurana’ by virupakshapandita, and Jaimini Bharatha by Lakshmeesha.


            This is not merely a contact between two sets of languages but the linguistic inter change is a sub product of a cultural exchange. This amalgamation of cultures has done a lot of good to the arts and crafts of Karnataka and Arabia. It is not fair to identify the Perso-Arabic languages and culture exclusively with Islam. As Sisir Kumar Das obseres, ‘ The legends and tales that reached India thorough Persian and Arabic were not neccessarily reflections of sectarian attitudes, many of them were of pre-Islamic oroigin........And the beautiful poems of Rumi, Sadi, Omar Khayyam or Hafiz defy all religious labels. ......It needs to be emphasised that Perso-Arabic element was never considered an exclusive property of the Muslims in India, or a conspicuous feature of Urdu poetry only, it was used with power and feeling by many non-Muslims and it penetrated languages other than Urdu.” (Sisir Kumar Das, History of Indian Literature, Sahitya Academy, New Delhi)




Borrowings with minimal word Constraint
Kannada and Arabic share a peculiar aspect as respect to borrowings words from other languages.  Kannada Speakers germinate a single Consonant after what is a lax(short) vowel in English as in Bed, Bus to make a super-heavy syllable. But if the English word already has a super-heavy syllable, then no germination of final consonant occurs. Thus Arabic like Kannada appears to obey constraint on minimal word size.  In Arabic the words are rhymed to keep the minimum word constraint.
(Eg)
Kannada 
Test -> Testu
Road -> Roadu
Bus -> Bassu
bed -> Beddu


Arabic
teen -> tiin
base -> bees
road -> rood


bus -> baas,bass
bed -> baad,badd

Arabic Inscriptions
Many Arabic Inscriptions are found, chiefly by Bahmani Sultans, Adil shahis  and Hyder-Ali Tipu Sultan.


Translations
            This can be corraboarated by the fact that the Rubayiyath’ of Omara Kahyyam was translated in to Kannada by no less than three important poets. 


Dakhini Urdu
Dakhini was the lingua franca of the Muslims of Deccan, chiefly living in Hyderabad state, Mysore state and the Hyderabad–Karnataka Region. The Language chiefly developed in the courts of Bahmani sultans, Adil Shahis and Hyder Ali-Tipu Sultan. Deccani urdu has large borrowings from Kannada.


Kannada Lands through Arab Eyes
Al Beruni
Al beruni gives vivid accounts of karnataka especially under Rastrakutas. When he tells about warrior  Kannadigas (Kanaras), he goes on to add they were employed by Ghazni as well. He says so much about karnataka ,we need special article on this.


Al Idrisi
He was an Arabian traveller who went through India and wrote  Najhjul-Mushtaq describing the Rastrakuta, Chalukya   states. Some observations may be false or coined by himself,but he gives important information about commercial ties of India with China and Persia. He divided Indian Societies in seven sections such as Kulin, Brahmins, Soldiers, peasants, Craftsmen, Muscians and Entertainers.




Shiekh Fak Abu Abdullah Mohmmed bin Batuta
He is a Moroccon arab travelling various countries reached India at the time of Mohmmad bin tuglaq was appointed qazi of Delhi by sultan. For 8yrs he worked post,  he stayed for a time in southern India under the protection of Jamal-ud-Din, ruler of the small but powerful Nawayath sultanate on the banks of the Sharavathi River next to the Arabian Sea. This area is today known as Hosapattana and lies in the Honavar administrative district of Uttara Kannada. Following the overthrow of the sultanate, Ibn Battuta had no choice but to leave India. 

Rafiuddin Shiraz
His book Tajkirat ul Muluk deals with Adilshahi rulers of Bijapur. He gives vivid accounts of Karnataka


Suleiman (9th century AD)
He was an Arabian Traveller who visited India and China through persian gulf. In his travel account he described rastrakuta, Pala , Pratiharas .


Albila Duri   (9th century AD)
This Arabian traveller in his book entitled Futuhul Buldaan described the arab invasion of India and its impact. His descriptions tell us that the Chalukyas and Rastrakutas tried to check the expansion of the Muslims in India in an organized manner. As a result the arabs were forced to leave many regions which they had conquered.


Al Masudi (915-917AD)
In 10th century AD, he came to visit India from Baghdad. He wrote a book entitled Muruj ul Jahan describing in an interesting manner the political rivalry  between Pala, Pratihar and Rastrakutas.  He says King of Pratihar was a natural enemy of king of south Rastrakutas. He has a big army. He state was encircled with many small states whose kings were ever ready and determined to wage  a war.


Influx of Arabs in Karnataka
Coastal Karnataka had trade relations with Arabian merchants through the oceanic route even before the founding of Islam in the seventh century A.D. Arab followers of Islam came to Karnataka either via Landroutes from Sind-Gujarat or the costal cities of Karnataka like Mangalore and Karwar. Some Arab writers have spoken about the presence of Muslim subjects during the regime of Rashtrakutas. There are conclusive evidences about the spread of Islamic community in the west coast of Karnataka by the 11th century. Written documents are available to substantiate the fact that horses imported from Arabia, Persia and Turkey were sold and bought during the later centuries. 


THE BEARYS
The Beary is a small Muslim community concentrated mostly in Tulu areas, which includes coastal districts of Dakshina Kannada &  Udupi in Karnataka State and Kasargod in Kerala State.  The Bearys are Muslims in faith. The Beary language is a mixture of Arabic , Tulu and Kannada. 

The Bearys are the earliest Muslim Community in the area and one among The earliest Muslim population of India with a clear history of more than 1200 years.  Tulu folk song 'PADDANAS' and many other records explain their incorporated relation to Tulunadu & its Culture. The Word 'BEARY' is said to be derived from the Tulu word 'BEARA', which means trade or business. Since early times a majority of these people were involved in business activities. 


This Theory of Arab social interchange with Southern Coast leading to the emergence of new communities is supported by prominent Scholars like Tarachand. Thomas Arnold, Saletore & Many Historians.  The MANNERS COLLECTIONS (Padthanas) 1886 refers to two groups of Bearys Viz., Jathi Neethi Bearys & Jathi Setty Bearys. Jathi Neethi Bearys were highly honoured by the local people. They followed Islamic faith & discipline. But, other group, Just pronounced the KALIMAH ( Oath of Islam) and adhered to the community without islamic practices. Their names also resembld the local names such as Andu, Seku, Bappa, Sadu, Saidu etc. Beary community shows the depth of interaction between Karnataka and Arabia.


Arabic Dictionary
Al Muzhir Arabic Dictionary , Arabic -Kannada dictionary in Kannada by Abdul Shaheed Azharyand M.S.M Abdul Rasheed Zaini Kamil.


References: 
 ‘kannaDadalli PArasi, urdu shabdagaLu’, D.K.Bheemasena Rao, Kannada Sahitya Parishath Patrike, Volume 22.
HISTORY OF THE RASHTRAKUTAS BY PANDIT BISHESHWAR NATH REU 
Pratiyogita Darpan: General Studies Indian History
Tracing the Origin of Ancient Sumerians By: Dr. Ashok Malhotra
Linguistic theory in second language acquisition  By Suzanne Flynn, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Social Life in Medieval Karnataka  By Jyotsna Kamat



Source 
Classical Kannada
Karnataka Beary Sahithya Academy
Sumerian Dictionary

Related Posts
Origin of Wootz
 Persia and Karnataka
Turkey and Karnataka
Origin of Rastrakutas
Topics

Kasuti - Mother of world Embroidery

Kasuti also spelt kasooti is the oldest form of Embroidery in India. Home to Satavahanas, chutus, Kadambas, Chalukyas, Ratrakutas,Hoysalas,Seunas, Vijayanagar and much more is also home to various arts, Karnataka is said to be the master of all 64 arts and one of them is Kasuti

Kasuti - Etymology
Kasuti can be broken down to ky - hand , suti- weave. Kasuti is called Kashida in North India.

Features

Kasuti was done on Ilkal saris woven in North Karnataka town called Ilkal in pit looms. These are woven in cotton and silk. The Dark background of Ilkal sari provide a good base for the colors used in Kasuti embroidery. These saris had a distinct style- a  4" of border, which was generally in deep shades of red  and this enveloped a well woven sari with a red pallav carrying white panels called tope and tenni. Kasuti embroidery is done above this pallav in a border called bugadi. which forms the base of the embroidery to follow. This continous border is worked in gavanti stitch,which has been known to mean knot stitch or rural stitch. After this the large patterns on the sari emerge. The Chariot Ratha,or a tree with peacocks or flowers and this distribution of motis grows sparse as it travels away from the pallav,becoming  small flowers and dots. Which are worked into the pleats of the sari.

Originally this embroidery was done by women with silk threads,which were taken directly from the weavers of the Ilkal saris. Later weavers sold these saris with 10" of extra silk thread in the wrap, which hung from the pallav area. This way the colours used in the embroidery blended well and the combinations were never garnish. The most readily available medium they could use was their daily clothing, which were saris,cholis,kunchis(bonnets) and lahngas or skirts.

The various themes that are embroidered in Kasuti are that of gopuram, bells, chariots, temple sculpture, flowers, animals etc. Appearing same on both the sides, various designs include Dagabaji Gopura, Gandolagida, Tulasi, Vankipatti, Kayapatti, Gopi Kamala Chittu Kamala, Gundala Gopura etc. Than the geometrical designs of the Kasuti have been educed from the temple structure.

Influences
Kasuti embroidery is every rich in symbolic motifs as the finest examples of this embroidery are found where vijaynagar ,Chalukya court influence was the strongest, the present Bijapur and Dharwad area's. Hence the inspiration of these womenfolk were symbols and designs which came from the temples, cavees, shrines,beautifully sculptured edifices with exquisite patterns, the flora and fauna of the region, and anything that their eyes could relate to.

Religion and Kasuti
Until recently, it was customary for brides to be presented with blue black Ilkal saris with kasuti embroidery on it. In earlier days, the girls themselves embroidered this sari known as chandrakali sari, which is nine yard Ilkal sari to be readied  for their marrige. A Chandrakali sari taken by the bride as she goes to her husband house was traditionally woven with indio dyed warp and black weft. In fact the use of indigo as warp was mandatory in Ilkal sarees and thus the different colours woven would have light and shade effect. The Chandrakala was considered Shubha Shagun- Good Omen.

Among the Lingayats a hand embroidery khun or choli was considered a most appropriate gift for an expectant mother. The dreams and desires of these young girls find experssion in these embroidery pieces. Along the border, one may find horse, which is ridden by horseman, maybe a palanquin, which might take her to her husband's home or two love birds right in the middle of nowhere.

An interesting information is the kasuti is mentioned in bible as per the christian weavers of kasuti. kannada bible shows the kasuti in the book of exodus, chapter 26 shows emboridery and kasuti. The German missionaries put a school and hospital in North karnataka and the school also has kasuti weaving  in their curriculum.

Guru Nanak(1469-1538AD) says Kadh kasida pahreh choli tan tu jane nari(only when you can embroidery of your own costume ,you will be considered  as a woman) same as Chandrkala tradition also practiced in Nanded.

Technique
The most remarkable feature about kasuti is that there is no right or wrong side. Both sides are identical. However complicated the design, the end of the design coincides with the beginning. There is no knot used in the beginning or end of the thread. A small straight stitch is placed at the beginning and end.

Kasuti can be described as a delicate embroidery with geometric designs which when worked very closely can make dramatic patterns. A combination of four main stitches, all based originally on the counted thread method(equi-distance running stitches- by counting the same number of threads), allow many people to work on the same pattern and a change in the working hands does nto affect  the final design. Now the designs are traced on paper or loosely woven gauge, which is then pulled off after completing the work. Kasuti Embroidery is done with four main stitches.

Gavanti or Gaunti meaning konts is a double running stitch and used in straight, horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines.

Muragi is a zigzag running stitch and looks like a ladder when it is used. Small motifs like squares, hexagons, octagons and ladders are created with this stitch. THe Muragi stitch looks identical on both sies of the cloth

Neygi or Negi - the name of the stitch is derived from the kannada word neyi to weave. This darning stitch in which long and short lines are used which gives the effect of weaving.

Menthe - A kannada word meaning Fenugreek seed or a forked stitch, crossed Stitch. This stitch is mainly used to fill motifs

Kasuti Antiquity
Kasuti became famous under Chalukyas of Badami and reached far corners of the country.

Bana Bhatta in Harshacharita in seventh century AD describes the Rajyasri wedding describes Kasuti.

Embroidery of Austria and Hungary bears close resemblance to the embroidery of Kasuti in karnataka.

Celtic stitches of scotland in particular of Holbein stitch used in Elizabethn black work resemble Kasuti of Karnataka.

Holbein was called Spanisshe stitche in 17th century. This apparently was seen in the book printed in Germany 1527, a seamstress of Elizabeth I called it True Stitch-there is no right or wrong side, why so many names for one stitch. The Answer lies in in Egypt. Fragments of printed and embroidery fabrics which have been found in the ruins of Fustat, the capital of Egypt in 14th century. Studies of these fragments which have reached several museums around the world, have revealed that these textiles were indeed made in karnataka. On studying  the pictures, the similarities between kasuti and that particular embroidery which seems to have been done during the rule of the Mamluks(1270-1517) is nothing short of striking.

Laborious process.
The technique is difficult ot learn,as the patterns made by counting warp and weft threads, which when done on dark backgrounds can cause a great deal of eye strain. It is laborious process and taken years to master. Even a minor error during the embroidery process means undoing the motif and redoing it  completely as the error would be spotted afar. This form of emboroidery also requires physical and mental alertness and a great deal of patience.

Revival of Kasuti
There are many who are responsible for revival of kasuti almost made extinct under British rule. Janata shikshana smiti founded by Hukkeri rama roa in dharwad, Laila Tyabji founded Dastkaar, Asha Ben savla, Sabala a NGO in Bijapur to name a few.

Ilkal Saree's

Ilkal saree is a traditional form of saree which is a common feminine wear in India. Ilkal saree takes its name from the town of Ilkal in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka  state, India. Ilkal sarees are woven using cotton warp on the body and art silk warp for border and art silk warp for pallav portion of the saree. In some cases instead of art silk, pure silk is also used. Ilkal was an ancient weaving centre where the weaving seems to have started in the 8th century AD.  The growth of these sarees is attributed to the patronage provided by the local chieftains. The availability of local raw materials helped in the growth of this saree

Uniqueness

• The uniqueness of saree is joining of the body warp with pallav warp with a series of loops locally called as TOPE TENI technique.
• The weaver will gait only 6 yards, 8 yards, 9 yards warp due to above TOPE TENI technique. KONDI Technique is used for weft through inserting 3 shuttles.
• Pallav portion-Design: “TOPE TENE SERAGU” Normally in tope teni seragu 3 solid portions would be in red colour, and in between 2 portions in white colour
•  Tope Teni seragu has been regarded as a state symbol and was greatly respected during festival occasions.
• Traditional Borders: (i) Chikki, (ii) Gomi, and (iii) Gadidadi, and modern Gaythri are unique ones in Ilkal sarees - width ranging from 2.5” to 4”
• Border Colour Uniqueness: Red usually or Maroon dominates.

Description
The peculiar characteristic of the saree is joining the body warp with the pallav warp which is locally called as TOPE TENI. This technique is only used exclusively at Ilkal. If anyone requires Ilkal saree one must prepare a warp for every saree. Warp threads for body is prepared separately. Similarly pallav warp is prepared separately either with art silk or pure silk depending upon the quality required. Thirdly border portion of warp is prepared as like the pallav warp either art silk or pure silk and the colour used for pallav and on border will be one and the same. In general, the length of the pallav will range 16” to 27”. The pallav threads and body threads are joined in loop technique, a typical method which is locally called as TOPE TENI.

Features
The distinctive feature of Ilkal sarees is the use of a form of embroidery called as Kasuti. The designs used in Kasuti reflect traditional patters like palanquins, elephants and lotuses which are embroidered onto Ilkal sarees. These sarees are usually 9 yards in length and the pallu of the Ilkal saree (the part worn over the shoulder) carries designs of temple towers. This pallu is usually made of red silk with white patterns. The end region of the pallu is made up of patterns of different shapes like hanige (comb), koti kammli (fort ramparts), toputenne (jowar) and rampa (mountain range). The border of the sari is very broad (4 to 6 inches) and red or maroon in colour and is made of different designs with ochre patterns. The saree is either made of cotton, or a mixture of cotton and silk or in pure silk. The colors traditionally used are pomegranate red, brilliant peacock green and parrot green. The sarees that are made for bridal wear are made of a particular colour called Giri Kumukum which is associated with the sindhoor worn by the wives of the priests in this region.

Types of Borders
The design woven in the length wise borders are mainly three types :-

•  Gomi (more popularly known as Ilkal dadi)
• Paraspet (Sub-divided into chikki paras and dodd paras)
• Gaadi

Main Body design

• Stripes
• Rectangles
• Squares

Other Differences
With above broad parameters the Ilkal sarees differ in matters of size, nature and quality of yarn used for different portion of saree as also colour combination and combinations of designs on the borders and main body of the saree. The beauty of Tope-teni seragu is further enhanced at times by weaving in its middle portion, yet another design known as ‘Kyadgi’.

Reference
Kasuti - Karnataka Kashida by Sunita Shahaney
Wiki - Ilkal Saree's

Vijnaneshwara - Pioneer Ancient Hindu Jurist

Vijnaneshwara was a prominent jurist of twelfth century India. His treatise, the Mitakshara, dealt with inheritance, and is one of the most influential legal treatises in Hindu law.  Vijnaneshwara was born in the village of Martur, near Gulbarga in Karnataka. He lived in the court of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126), in Kalyan. The Hindu Law of the constitution is based on Mitakshara. Let us see the speech by Justice by Markandey Katju and then continue our discussion.

Speech by  Justice Markandey Katju

When I was informed of the topic: "The importance of Mitakshara in the 21st century" my initial reaction was that Mitakshara has hardly got any importance today except with regard to coparcenary property rights of Hindus. As you all know, most of the old Hindu laws were replaced by parliamentary statutes in 1955 and 1956 viz. the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956, the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956, etc. These Acts have substituted the Mitakshara and the Dayabhaga law except with regard to succession to ancestral property, which continues to be covered by the Mitakshara vide Section 6 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956.

This is a practical age. Lawyers are interested in knowing the law which will help them in their cases, and they are hardly interested in purely academic matters which have little practical application. Hence, hardly anyone reads the Mitakshara or Dayabhaga today, as they have largely been superseded by the statutes made by Parliament.

However, I wish to speak on the topic from a somewhat different angle. 

As is well known, the Mitakshara prevailed all over India except in Bengal and Assam where the Dayabhaga prevailed. The Mitakshara is a commentary on only one Smriti called Yajnavalkya Smriti, whereas Dayabhaga is a digest of all the Smritis.

Although Hindu law is regarded as having emanated from the Vedas (Shruti) the truth is that there is scarcely any law in the Veda (Shruti) and the Hindu law that has really emanated from the Smritis. There were large number of Smritis of which the surviving ones are of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Vishnu, Narada, Apastamba, Gautam, Parasara, Vashist, Katyayana, etc.

As I have mentioned, the Mitakshara is a commentary only on the Yajnavalkya Smriti. The question therefore which arises is as to why Vijnaneshwara chose only the Yajnavalkya Smriti for his commentary. There was Manu Smriti which was held in even greater respect than Yajnavalkya Smriti, but Vijnaneshwara preferred to write his commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti rather than on Manu Smriti.

We can get the answer to this question if we compare Manu Smriti with Yajnavalkya Smriti. Manu Smriti is not a systematic treatise. It does not have a clear-cut division between religion and law, as in Yajnavalkya Smriti. If we read the Manu Smriti, we will find that there is one shloka on religion, the next shloka on law, third on morality, etc. Everything is jumbled up. On the other hand the Yajnavalkya Smriti is divided into three chapters. The first chapter is called Achara which deals with religion, the second chapter is called Vyavahara which deals with law, and the third chapter is called Prayaschit which deals with penance. Thus, there is a clear demarcation between law and religion in Yajnavalkya Smriti, which is not to be found in the Manu Smriti. This demarcation between law and religion itself is a great advance over the Manu Smriti. Thus, the Yajnavalkya Smriti marks a tremendous advance in law over the Manu Smriti. Law is now clearly separated from religion. This is analogous to the Roman law or to the positivist jurisprudence in the 19th century of Bentham and Austin.

Also, the Yajnavalkya Smriti is shorter and more liberal, particularly towards women than the Manu Smriti. It was perhaps for this reason that Vijnaneshwara preferred the Yajnavalkya Smriti to the Manu Smriti for writing his commentary.

As is well known, the Mitakshara was written by Vijnaneshwara during the reign of Vikramarka, a Chalukya ruler of the 11th century A.D. Although, the Mitakshara was written by a South Indian, its remarkable feature is that its authority spread all over India except Bengal and Assam (where too it has great respect) and it was accepted as the authoritative text on Hindu law even in North India.

Mitakshara was certainly not a law made by Parliament. In fact, in those days there was no Parliament and the law consisted of treatises of learned jurists. The Mitakshara was accepted as an authoritative text on Hindu law not due to promulgation by any sovereign authority such as the King or Parliament, but due to its tremendous scholarship, logical analysis and the sheer force of intellect of its author.

The importance of the Mitakshara therefore is that it teaches us to have respect for intellect and learning wherever it may come from. As the Rig Veda says,

"Let noble thoughts come to us from every side."

or as it is said:

 "A king is worshipped only in his own country, but a learned man is worshipped everywhere."

This is the lesson which the Mitakshara teaches us in the 21st century. If India has to rise as a nation we must not be sectarian or chauvinists but all must feel like Indians living like a united family and must respect each other, whether we come from North or South, East or West.

The second importance of Vijnaneshwara's Mitakshara in India in the 21st century is the great progress it made in traditional Hindu law by making it secular. In this connection it may be mentioned that in ancient India there was not only great development in Philosophy, Mathematics and Science, but there was also great advancement in the field of law.

Until the Mitakshara of Vijnaneshwara came into existence, Smritis and commentaries were largely religious and not secular. It was the Mitakshara which was the first to make the laws of property and inheritance secular.

The bifurcation of the Mitakshara and Dayabhaga was due to two different interpretations given to a single word "sapinda". Manu has written that when a man dies, his property goes to his nearest "sapinda". The question is therefore what is the meaning of the word "sapinda". That depends upon the meaning of the word "pinda". According to Dayabhaga, "pinda" means the rice balls which are offered in the Shraddha ceremony to one's deceased ancestors. On the other hand, according to the Mitakshara the word "pinda" does not mean the rice balls offered at the Shraddha ceremony at all but it means the particles of the body of the deceased.

The term "sapinda" as used in the Smritis and by the commentators before Vijnaneshwara meant only those connected with the funeral obligations. Vijnaneshwara's definition of "sapinda" as one connected by the particles of the same body was apparently unknown to any previous commentator. He cites no Smriti in support of his view, but only the Vedic texts on the theory of heredity which do not mention "pinda" or "sapinda" at all. As Nilakantha says in "Samskara Mayukha":

"Vijnaneshwara abandoned the theory of connection through the rice-ball offering and accepted the theory of transmission of constituent particles."

In this connection the Mitakshara may be contrasted to the Dayabhaga system. In the chapter which deals with the subject of succession, Dayabhaga appeals to the doctrine of religious efficacy at every step, testing the claims of rival heirs by their numbers and nature of their respective offerings. On the other hand, the Mitakshara never once alludes to such a test, as noted by the Privy Council in Balasubrahmanya Pandya Thalaivar v. M. Subbayya Tevar, IA at p. 102. The claims of rival heirs are determined primarily by the test of degrees of propinquity and not religious efficacy. Even persons who confer no religious benefits to the deceased are admitted as heirs for the reason of affinity. Vijnaneshwara states emphatically that "sapinda" relationship does not depend upon the relationship of the deceased through the offering of the "pindas" and his getting it or not, but it depends upon having the same particles of one's body. Vijnaneshwara's new definition was therefore revolutionary. It divested the word "sapinda" of its religious meaning, and was in keeping with the new orientation which he gave to the Vyavahara or civil law by treating property and inheritance as purely secular matters, like the Roman lawyers. He rested the rules of law on purely practical and rational considerations. Combating the view that the wealth of a regenerate man is designed for religious uses exclusively, Vijnaneshwara says:

"If that were so, other purposes of opulence and gratification, which are to be effected by means of wealth, must remain unaccomplished and if that be the case, there is an inconsistency in the following passages of Yajnavalkya, Gautama and Manu, 'Neglect not religious duty, wealth or pleasure in the proper season.' "

As stated above, Vijnaneshwara relies on no Smriti authority in support of his contention that the word "sapinda" has a secular and not religious connotation. Instead, Vijnaneshwara displayed his creative brilliance by relying for this purpose on Jaimini's Lipsa Sutras as he calls the 3rd Adhikarana of Chapter I Book IV of Jaimini's Sutras.

According to Vijnaneshwara, the origin of property is popular recognition, and hence the basis of inheritance and succession is relationship by blood. While Jimutavahana makes the text of Manu on the subject the foundation of his principle of inheritance (because Manu emphasises the spiritual aspect), Vijnaneshwara mainly relies on the text of Yajnavalkya, because the latter prefers the matter of factual aspect. Vijnaneshwara utilises the Mimansa Adhikarana as interpreted by Prabhakara who is reputed to be an heterodox propounder of the Mimansa Sutras, while the orthodox interpretation of the Adhikarana as given by Savaraswami and Kumarila Bhatta gives no support to Vijnaneshwara's views.

Thus, we see that Vijnaneshwara utilises the Mimansa principles, particularly, the Prabhakara school, for striking out a new, secular path in the field of law.

This new, revolutionary change in the law which Vijnaneshwara effected by his new definition of the word "sapinda" had remarkable practical effects. For instance, Jimutavahana who wrote the Dayabhaga, did not permit inheritance to a son at birth. This is because Dayabhaga followed the traditional rule that only the person who can perform Shraddha for his ancestor can inherit the property.

In the book called Parvana Shraddha the list of persons who can perform Shraddha is mentioned. At Serial No. 1 of the list is the son. At Serial No. 2 is the son's son, etc. The general rule is that if a person at a higher position in the list is available, then one cannot go down the list, and the list terminates there. For instance, if the son is alive, then the son's son (i.e. grandson of the deceased) has no right to perform the Shraddha, because the grandson is at Serial No. 2 in the list given in Parvana Shraddha, whereas the son is at Serial No. 1. Hence, the grandson of the deceased has no right to inherit the property when the son is alive, because the grandson has no right to perform Shraddha when the son is alive. It is for this reason that there is no inheritance at birth in Dayabhaga when the father is alive. This is in sharp contrast to the Mitakshara in which the son inherits a share in the ancestral property at birth.

Similarly, in Dayabhaga the unborn son in the mother's womb cannot inherit a share in the property, because an unborn son cannot perform Shraddha. On the other hand, in the Mitakshara an unborn son in the mother's womb gets a share in the ancestral property. Dayabhaga prefers the father to the mother, because he presents two oblations in which the deceased son participates, while the mother presents none. Vijnaneshwara takes exactly the opposite view on the ground that "her propinquity is greatest". The view of Vijnaneshwara is reflected in the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 because the mother of a deceased Hindu is a Class I heir, and is hence automatically entitled to a share in the property of her deceased son, whereas the father is only a Class II heir, and will only get the property if there is no Class I heir. Thus even today a mother's position is higher than the father so far as succession is concerned, and this is in accordance with Vijnaneshwara's view.

Similarly, the right of a daughter to succeed is rested by Jimutavahana upon the funeral oblations which may be hoped for from her son, and the exclusion of widowed, or barren, or sonless daughters, is the natural result. The Mitakshara follows Brihaspati in basing her claim upon simple consanguinity. As a son, so does the daughter of a man proceed from his several limbs. How then can any other person take her father's wealth? And he excludes neither the widowed nor the barren daughter, but prefers one to another, accordingly as she is unmarried or married, poor or rich, that is, according as she has the best natural claim to be provided for.

The right of a daughter's son when he succeeds on the death of the widow and daughter certainly rests far more upon consanguinity than on religious efficacy. The preference of the daughter's son to agnates, whose claims based upon pinda offerings are stronger, can only be explained by propinquity. No doubt, according to Manu, Vishnu and Yajnavalkya, a daughter's son should perform Shraddha for the maternal grandfather. But, from the way Vishnu expresses it, the rule appears to be recommendatory. According to the Mitakshara, the Shraddha of the maternal grandfather is not obligatory but is only optional, except when the mother's sapindikarana has taken place with the maternal grandfather.

The express view laid down in the Mitakshara on the Shraddha rites that sapinda-relationship with the deceased is wholly independent of his being benefited by the pindas or not, is decisive and is consistent only with the conclusion that propinquity must be judged without reference to the grades, number or quality of the funeral offerings.

The conclusion therefore is irresistible that the Mitakshara does not admit religious efficacy either as a basis of heirship or as a measure of propinquity. The rules governing the right to perform Shraddhas or the offering of pindas, though in part determined by propinquity, are also in part influenced by different considerations. Religious efficacy as deduced from these rules can therefore furnish no safe or satisfactory test as regards the order of succession.

The above discussion shows that Vijnaneshwara struck a totally new note in the development of Hindu law and made it secular. This has great importance for the 21st century when secularism is absolutely essential for the unity and progress of the nation.

India is a country with tremendous diversity, innumerable religions, castes, languages, ethnic groups, cultures, etc. Hence only secularism and respect for everybody can keep the country together and make it progress. That is also the mandate of the Constitution, vide Articles 25 to 30 of the Constitution.

Apart from the above, the Mitakshara of Vijnaneshwara liberalised the law with regard to women. He provided for maintenance not only of the chaste wife but also the unchaste wife and unchaste widow. Also, while earlier writers circumscribed women's property within the narrow limits prescribed by Manu, Vijnaneshwara included all property however acquired within the definition. In this connection his liberal views evoked protests from conservative scholars, one writer going so far as to say that a particular rule was evolved by Vijnaneshwara out of his brain (LodiksydfYir) and hence deserved no consideration. However, ultimately all scholars recognised and accepted his views. Due to his progressive views women became entitled to hold and inherit property.

Hence, even though the Mitakshara may not be in vogue today except in matters of Hindu coparcenary property, yet the path it has shown is the path which India should pursue for its progress and prosperity.

I will conclude by quoting the Mitakshara:

There neither was, nor is, nor will ever be a city like Kalyana, or a king like Vikrama or a pandit like Vijnaneshwara. May these three live for ever.

History of Vijnaneshwara

 He wrote a law treatise in the 11th century, which is still in circulation. Serious efforts are now on to resurrect the greatness of Vijnaneshwara, the author of Mitakshara, gathers Anand V Yamnur  


An emperor in the 11th century touched the feet of this man to salute him. The inscriptions on a stone plaque, dated 1124 AD, found at the Kalingeshwara Temple in Martur village, 18 kilometres from Gulbarga, reveal: “Ariraya Mukuta Tadhita Charanan-enalu Negabdi Vikramankana Ratnokara Nichita Mukuta Tadhita,” meaning “When Emperor Vikramaditya bent down to salute Vijnaneshwara, the Emperor's jewelled crown touched the feet of Vijnaneshwara”. Such was the respect Vijnaneshwara commanded during his time. The inscriptions state that Vijnaneshwara lived in the court of Emperor Vikramaditya (1076-1126 AD).


He wrote Mitakshara, a law treatise explaining the Yagnvalkya Smruthi, propounded by philosopher Yagnvalkya. Except for minor changes, the laws in India relating to Hindu Joint Family, distribution of property, property rights, stree dhana (women property), and succession are still governed by Mitakshara. Though written 10 centuries ago, the relevance of Mitakshara is greatly felt, especially in the courts all over the country.


Till 1932, little was known about when and where Vijnaneshwara lived, and where he wrote his Mitakshara. The credit of discovering the time and place of Vijnaneshwara goes to Prof P B Desai of Dharwad. In the journal Prachina Karnataka: Hosa Belaku (Historical Karnataka: New Light), dated February 1, 1932, he wrote about a stone inscription at Kalingeshwara Temple at Martur, which discloses that Vijnaneshwara was a Kannadiga, and was born at Masemadu village in the present Bidar district. It was only recently that the famous epigraphist Sitaram Jagirdar took out a paper impression of the Martur inscriptions, and published its contents. Dr Jagirdar points out that the stone inscriptions date back to 1124 AD. The inscriptions also disclose that Martur was the place of work of Vijnaneshwara, and in recognition of his merit and contribution, he was gifted lands and honoured by Emperor Vikramaditya the VI of the Chalukya Dynasty.


Vijnaneshwara’s original name was Kancha, and he was the son of Somaraj and Bhagyavanithe. His wife's name was Kethikabbe. Of his four sons, Beethiraja got the temples of Shiva and Mahadeva constructed at Martur, and for this, the land was donated to him on January 6, 1123. Through the inscriptions it is clear that Vijnaneshwara lived in Martur, where he also wrote his commentary Mitakshara. Until the inscriptions were deciphered, it was believed that Vijnaneshwara was born in the Kalyan region of Maharashtra. But, the Martur inscriptions prove that the legal luminary of the forgotten era was a Kannadiga born in the Kalyan region, which is now Basavakalyan in Bidar district.

In 1970 the present Bihar Governor M Rama Jois who served as the Chief Justice in Punjab began writing a book Legal and Constitutional History of India. At that time, he came across the earliest translations of Mitakshara by H T Cole Broke of the UK (1867), and by Prof J R Gharapure of Pune (1912). Greatly impressed by the work, Justice Jois erected a befitting memorial for this medieval India’s greatest jurist. The fact that Vijnaneshwara was a Kannadiga and hailed from the Gulbarga region was little known to the world. The need to create awareness about this great personality among the common people, and promote research on his works led to the establishment of Vijnaneshwara Souhardhaka Co-operative Society. The Society came into existence last year in Gulbarga with Justice Jois as its chief patron. The main aim of this Society is to construct a befitting memorial for Vijnaneshwara at Martur at a cost of Rs one crore, and start a full-fledged research centre to study the life and works of the man. The State Government has already allotted six acres of land for the purpose. A local farmer Gundappa Kambar has donated half-an-acre of his land as a tribute to this great personality of yesteryears.

Sage Yajnavalkya

Sage Yajnavalkya was son of Devarta. Mahamuni Vaishampayana was his guru. Maitreyi and Katyayani were his wives. Chandrakanta, Mahamegha and Vijaya were his sons. He learnt Taittiriya Smahita from his guru Vaishampayana. However, once his guru was angry on him and asked him to omit the entire knowledge he learnt from him. Then Sage Yajnavalkya decided to worship Sun god and acquired fresh Vedic knowledge from him directly. His discourses with his wife Maitreyi about absolute Self was called Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Sage Yajnavalkya was also the author of Yajnavalkya Smriti, Yajnavalkya Shakha, Pratijna Sutra, Satapatha Brahmana, and Yoga-Yajnavalkya.


I thank Unknown Rajesh for bringing up to my notice


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